Detection and diagnosis of mycobac terium tuberculosis

Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy

Volumn 7, Issue 9, 2009, Pages 1099-1108

  Al Zamel, Faten A ^a  

^a KING SAUD UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

CFP 10; ESAT 6; IFN release assay; Nucleic acid amplification test; TB; Tuberculin skin test; Tuberculosis

Indexed keywords

GAMMA INTERFERON;

BACTERIUM DETECTION; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC KIT; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES; LUNG BIOPSY; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; NUCLEIC ACID AMPLIFICATION; PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELL; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SPUTUM SMEAR; T LYMPHOCYTE; TH1 CELL; TH2 CELL; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TISSUE CULTURE; TUBERCULIN TEST; TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; ECONOMICS; GENETICS; IMMUNOLOGY; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; LATENT TUBERCULOSIS;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES; HUMANS; LATENT TUBERCULOSIS; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 73949151264     PISSN: 14787210     EISSN: 17448336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ERI.09.92     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. WHO Report. Global tuberculosis control: Surveillance, planning and financing. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2007).
2. Kabra SK, Lodha R, Seth V. Some current concepts on childhood tuberculosis. Indian J. Med. Res. 120 (4), 387-397 (2004).
3. Marais BJ, Pai M. Recent advances in the diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis. Arch. Dis. Child. 92 (5), 446-452 (2007).
4. Corbett EL, Watt CJ, Walker N et al. The growing burden of tuberculosis: global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Arch. Intern. Med. 163, 1009-1021 (2003).
5. Raviglione MC. The TB epidemic from 1992 to 2002. Tuberculosis (Edinb.) 83, 4-14 (2003).
6. WHO Report. The HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis epidemics: implications for TB control. WHO/TB/CARG (4) /94.4. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (1994).
7. Fine PEM. Variation in protection by BCG: implications of and for heterologous immunity. Lancet 346, 1339-1345 (1995).
8. No authors listed. Tuberculosis Research Centre (ICMR), Chennai. Fifteen year follow up of trial of BCG vaccines in south India for tuberculosis prevention. Indian J. Med. Res. 110, 56-69 (1999).
9. Anil P. Tuberculosis: a snap shot picture. Health Millions 21 (1), 8-9 (1995).
10. WHO Report. Global tuberculosis control: Surveillance, planning, and financing. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2006).
11. Syblo K. Recent advances in epidemiological research in tuberculosis. Adv. Tuberc. Res. 20, 1-63 (1980).
12. Harada N. Characteristics of a diagnostic method for tuberculosis infection based on whole blood interferon-γ assay. Kekkaku 81 (11), 681-686 (2006). •• Discusses the advantages of QuantiFERON TB-2G over tuberculin skin testing (TST) for the diagnosis of both active TB and latent TB infection (LTBI).
13. Cohn DL. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: renewed opportunity for tuberculosis control. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 (1), 120-124 (2000). • Discusses the importance of treatment of LTBI to control TB.
14. Bukhary ZA, Alrajhi AA. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis, clinical presentation and outcome. Saudi Med. J. 25, 881-885 (2004).
15. Miorner H, Gebre N, Karlsson U et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Lancet 344, 127 (1994).
16. Perkins MD. New diagnostic tools for tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 4 (Suppl. 2), S182-S188 (2000).
17. nd Edition). Frieden TR (Ed.). WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 46-50 (2004).
18. Thornton CG, MacLellan KM, Brink TL, Passen S. In vitro comparison of NALC-NaOH, Tween 80 and C18-carboxypropylbetaine for processing of specimens for recovery of mycobacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36, 3558-3566 (1998).
19. Daniel TM. New approaches to the rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis meningitis. J. Infect. Dis. 155 (4), 599-602 (1987).
20. Ruddy M, McHugh TD, Dale JW et al. Estimation of the rate of unrecognized cross-contamination with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in London microbiology laboratories. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 (11), 4100-4104 (2002).
21. API Consensus Expert Committee. API TB Consensus Guidelines 2006: management of pulmonary tuberculosis, extra-pulmonary tuberculosis, and tuberculosis in special situations. J. Assoc. Physicians India 54, 219-234 (2006).
22. Huebner RE, Schein MF, Bass JB Jr. The tuberculin skin test. Clin. Infect. Dis. 17 (6), 968-975 (1993).
23. Wang L, Turner MO, Elwood RK, Schulzer M, FitzGerald JM. A metaanalysis of the effect of Bacille Calmette Guérin vaccination on tuberculin skin test measurements. Thorax 57 (9), 804-809 (2002).
24. American Thoracic Society. Diagnostic standards and classification of tuberculosis in adults and children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 1376-1395 (2000).
25. Swaminathan S, Subbaraman R, Venkatesan P et al. Tuberculin skin test results in HIV-infected patients in India: implications for latent tuberculosis treatment. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12 (2), 168-173 (2008).
26. Dogan E, Erkoc R, Sayarlioglu H, Uzun K. Tuberculin skin test results and booster phenomenon in two-step tuberculin skin testing in hemodialysis patients. Ren. Fail. 27 (4), 425-428 (2005).
27. Cengiz K, Seker A. Boosted tuberculin skin testing in hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Infect. Control 34 (6), 383-387 (2006).
28. Stein CM, Zalwango S, Malone LL, Won S et al. Genome scan of M. tuberculosis infection and disease in Ugandans. PloS ONE 3 (12), e4094 (2008).
29. Chaparas SD, Vandiviere HM, Melvin I, Koch G, Becker C. Tuberculin test. Variability with the Mantoux procedure. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 132, 175-177 (1985).
30. ATS MMWR Recommendations Report. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. 49 (PR6), 1-51 (2000).
31. Lee E, Holzman RS. Evolution and current use of the tuberculin test. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34, 365-370 (2002).
32. Noordhoek GT, Kaan JA, Mulder S, Wilke H, Kolk AH. Routine application of the polymerase chain reaction for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples. J. Clin. Pathol. 48 (9), 810-814 (1995).
33. Kadival GV, D'Souza CD, Kolk AH, Samuel AM. Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. Comparison of two target sequences for amplification. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. 282 (4), 353-361 (1995).
34. Nagi SS, Anand R, Pasha ST et al. Diagnostic potential of IS6110, 38kDa, 65kDa and 85B sequence-based polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples. Indian J. Med. Micobiol. 25 (1), 43-49 (2007).
35. Pfyffer GE. Nucleic acid amplification for mycobacterial diagnosis. J. Infect. 39, 21-26 (1999).
36. Magana-Arachchi D, Perera J, Gamage S, Chandrasekharan V. Low cost in-house PCR for the routine diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12 (3), 275-280 (2008).
37. Haldar S, Chakravorty S, Bhalla M, De Majumdar S, Tyagi JS. Simplified detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum using smear microscopy and PCR with molecular beacons. J. Med. Microbiol. 56, 1356-1362 (2007).
38. Dinnes J, Deeks J, Kunst H et al. A systematic review of rapid diagnostic tests for the detection of tuberculosis infection. Health Technol. Assess. 11 (3), 1-196 (2007). •• This review looked at 212 studies that used rapid tests for detection of active TB, and concluded that the nucleic acid amplification test is more accurate than other rapid tests, especially when testing pulmonary TB, and the specificity of the test is high but the sensitivity is poor.
39. Manjunath N, Shankar P, Rajan L, Bhargava A, Saluja S, Shriniwas. Evaluation of a polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of tuberculosis. Tubercle 72, 21-27 (1991).
40. Brown TJ, Power EG, French GL. Evaluation of three commercial detection systems for Mycobacterium tuberculosis where clinical diagnosis is difficult. J. Clin. Pathol. 52, 193-197 (1999).
41. Barnes PF. Rapid diagnostic tests for tuberculosis: progress but no gold standard. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155, 1497-1498 (1997).
42. Chedore P, Broukhanski G, Shainhouse Z, Jamieson F. False-positive amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test results for samples containing Mycobacterium leprae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44 (2), 612-613 (2006).
43. Daley P, Thomas S, Pai M. Nucleic acid amplification tests for the diagnosis of tuberculous lymphadenitis: a systemic review. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 11 (11), 1166-1176 (2007).
44. Daniel TM, De Murillo GL, Sawyer JA et al. Field evaluation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the serodiagnosis of tuberculosis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 134, 662-665 (1986).
45. Escamilla L, Mancilla R, Glender W, López-Marín LM. Mycobacterium fortuitum glycolipids for the serodiagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154, 1864-1867 (1996).
46. Laal S, Samanich KM, Sonnenberg MG et al. Surrogate marker of preclinical tuberculosis in human immunodeficiency virus infection: antibodies to an 88-kDa secreted antigen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 176, 133-143 (1997).
47. Imaz MS, Comini MA, Zerbini E et al. Evaluation of the diagnostic value of measuring IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies to the recombinant 16-kilodalton antigen of M. tuberculosis in childhood tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 5, 1036-1043 (2001).
48. Raja A, Uma Devi KR, Ramalingam B, Brennan PJ. Immunoglobulin G, A and M responses in serum and circulating immune complexes elicited by the 16-kilodalton antigen of M. tuberculosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9 (2), 308-312 (2002).
49. Raja A, Uma Devi KR, Ramalingam B, Brennan PJ. Improved diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis by detection of free and immune complex-bound anti-30 kDa antibodies. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 50, 523-529 (2004).
50. Ramalingam B, Uma DK, Swaminathan S, Raja A. Isotype-specific antibody response in childhood tuberculosis against purified 38 kDa antigen of M. tuberculosis. J. Trop. Pediatr. 48, 188-189 (2002).
51. Zheng YJ, Wang RH, Lin YZ, Daniel TM. Clinical evaluation of the diagnostic value of measuring IgG antibody to 3 mycobacterial antigenic preparations in the capillary blood of children with tuberculosis and control subjects. Tuber. Lung Dis. 75 (5), 366-370 (1994).
52. Patil SA, Gourie-Devi M, Anand AR et al. Significance of mycobacterial immunecomplex (IgG) in the diagnosis of tuberculin meningitis. Tuber. Lung Dis. 77, 164-167 (1996).
53. Chaturvedi V, Gupta HP. Evaluation of integral membrane antigens of M. habana for serodiagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis: association between levels of antibodies and M. tuberculosis antigens. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 33, 1-7 (2001).
54. Abebe F, Holm-Hansen C, Wiker HG, Bjune G. Progress in serodiagnosis of M. tuberculosis infection. Scand. J. Immunol. 66, 176-191 (2007).
55. Chiang IH, Suo J, Bai KJ et al. Serodiagnosis of tuberculosis. A study comparing three specific mycobacterial antigens. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 156, 906-911 (1997).
56. Ravn P, Munk ME, Andersen AB et al. Prospective evaluation of a whole-blood test using Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 for diagnosis of active tuberculosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 12, 491-496 (2005).
57. Weldingh K, Rosenkrands I, Okkels LM, Doherty TM, Andersen P. Assessing the serodiagnostic potential of 35 Mycobacterium tuberculosis proteins and identification of four novel serological antigens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 57-65 (2005).
58. Araujo Z, Waard JH, Fernandez de Larrea C et al. Study of the antibody response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens in Warao Amerindian children in Venezuela. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 99, 517-524 (2004).
59. Houghton RL, Lodes MJ, Dillon DC et al. Use of multiepitope polyproteins in serodiagnosis of active tuberculosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9, 883-891 (2002).
60. Flynn JL, Chan J, Triebold KJ, Dalton DK, Stewart TA, Bloom BR. An essential role for interferon-γ resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. J. Exp. Med. 178, 2249-2254 (1993).
61. Boom WH. The role of T-cell subsets in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Infect. Agents Dis. 5 (2), 73-81 (1996).
62. + cells after airborne M. tuberculosis infection. J. Exp. Med. 205 (10), 2359-2368 (2008).
63. Ravn P, Demissie A, Eguale T et al. Human T cell responses to the ESAT-6 antigen from M. tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 179 (3), 637-645 (1999).
64. Ulrichs T, Munk ME, Mollenkopf H et al. Differential T cell responses to M. tuberculosis ESAT-6 in tuberculosis patients and healthy donors. Eur. J. Immunol. 28, 3949-3958 (1998).
65. Lalvani A, Pathan AA, Durkan H et al. Enhanced contact tracing and spatial tracing of M. tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. Lancet 357, 2017-2021 (2001).
66. Mori T, Sakatini M, Yamagishi F et al. Specific detection of tuberculosis infection: an interferon-γ-based assay using new antigens. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170, 59-64 (2004).
67. Andersen P, Munk ME, Pollock JM, Doherty TM. Specific immune-based diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet 356, 1099-1104 (2000).
68. Tully G, Kortsik C, Höhn H et al. Highly focused T cell responses in latent human pulmonary M. tuberculosis infection. J. Immunol. 174, 2174-2184 (2005).
69. Brodin P, de Jonge MI, Majlessi L et al. Functional analysis of early secreted antigenic target 6, the dominant T-cell antigen of M. tuberculosis, reveals key residues involved in secretion, complex formation, virulence and immunogenicity. J. Biol. Chem. 280 (40), 33953-33959 (2005).
70. Munk ME, Arend SM, Brock I, Ottenhoff TH, Andersen P. Use of ESAT-6 and CFP 10 antigens for diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 183 (1), 175-176 (2001).
71. Behr MA, Wilson MA, Gill WP et al. Comparative genomic of BCG vaccines by whole-genome DNA microarrays. Science 284, 1520-1523 (1999).
72. Pai M, Riley LW, Colford JM Jr. Interferon-γ assays in the immunodiagnosis of tuberculosis: a systemic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4 (12), 761-776 (2004).
73. + memory T cells correlate with a favorable outcome of tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 194 (7), 984-992 (2006).
74. Sørensen AL, Nagai S, Houen G, Andersen P, Andersen AB. Purification and characterization of a low-molecular-mass T-cell antigen secreted by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 63, 1710-1717 (1995).
75. Harboe M, Oettinger T, Wiker HG, Rosenkrands I, Andersen P. Evidence for occurrence of the ESAT-6 protein in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and virulent Mycobacterium bovis and for its absence in Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Infect. Immun. 64, 16-22 (1996).
76. Syed AKB, Sikhamani R, Swaminathan S, Perumal V, Paramasivam P, Raja A. Role of interferon γ release assay in active TB diagnosis among HIV infected individuals. PLoS ONE 4 (5), e5718 (2009).
77. Stavri H, Ene L, Popa GL et al. Comparison of tuberculin skin test with whole-blood interferon γ assay and ELISA, in HIV positive children and adolescents with TB. Roum. Arch. Microbiol. Immunol. 68 (1), 14-19 (2009).
78. Lalvani A, Pathan AA, McShane H et al. Rapid detection of M. tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163, 824-828 (2001).
79. Fukazawa K. Application and problems of QuantiFERON TB-2G for tuberculosis control programs: (1) Tuberculosis outbreak in a Cram school. Kekkaku 82 (1), 53-59 (2007).
80. Kang YA, Lee, HW, Hwang SS et al. Usefulness of whole-blood interferon-γ assay and interferon-γ enzyme-linked immunospot assay in the diagnosis of active pulmonary tuberculosis. Chest 132 (3), 959-965 (2007).
81. Ozekinic T, Ozbek E, Celik Y. Comparison of tuberculin skin test and a specific T-cell-based test, T-spot TB, for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection. J. Int. Med. Res. 35 (5), 696-703 (2007).
82. Ewer K, Deeks J, Alvarez L et al. A comparison of T-cell-based assay with tuberculin skin test for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a school tuberculosis outbreak. Lancet 361, 1168-1173 (2003).
83. Shams H, Weis SE, Klucar P et al. Enzyme-linked immunospot and tuberculin skin testing to detect latent tuberculosis infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172, 1161-1168 (2005).
84. Kang YA, Lee HW, Yoon HI et al. Discrepancy between the tuberculin skin test and the whole-blood interferon γ assay for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in an intermediate tuberculosis-burden country. JAMA 293, 2756-2761 (2005).
85. Leyten EM, Prins C, Bossink AW et al. Effect of tuberculin skin testing on a Mycobacterium tuberculoiss i1212-6sspecific interferon-γ assay. Eur. Respir. J. 29 (6), 1212-1216 (2007).
86. Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A et al. Large-scale evaluation of enzyme-linked immunospot assay and skin test for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection against a gradient of exposure in the Gambia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38 (7), 966-973 (2004).
87. Richeldi L, Ewer K, Losi M et al. T-cell-based tracking of multidrug resistant tuberculosis infection after brief exposure. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170 (3), 288-295 (2004).
88. Kobashi Y, Obase Y, Fakuda M, Yoshida K, Miyashita N, Oka M. Clinical revaluation of the QuantiFERON TB-2G test as a diagnostic methods for differentiating active tuberculosis from nontuberculous mycobacteriosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43, 1540-1546 (2006).
89. Pai M, Joshi R, Bandyopadhyay M, Narang P, Dogra S, Taksande B, Kalantri S. Sensitivity of a whole-blood interferon-γ assay among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and variation in T-cell responses during anti-tuberculosis treatment. Infection 35 (2), 98-108 (2007).
90. Kobashi Y, Mouri K, Yagi S et al. Usefulness of the QuantiFERON-TB 2G test for the differential diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Intern. Med. 47 (4), 237-243 (2008).
91. Kawabe Y. Application and problems of quantiFERON TB-2G for tuberculosis control programs - (2) clinical use of quantiFERON TB-2G. Kakkaku 82 (1), 61-66 (2007).
92. Lalvani A, Nagvenkar P, Udwadia Z et al. Enumeration of T cells specific for RD1-encoded antigens suggests a high prevalence of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in healthy urban Indians. J. Infect. Dis. 183, 469-477 (2001).
93. Lalvani A, Hill AV. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes against malaria and tuberculosis: from natural immunity to vaccine design. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 95, 531-538 (1998).
94. + T lymphocytes specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 270-275 (1998).
95. Heeger PS, Greenspan NS, Kuhlenschmidt S, Dejelo C, Hricik DE, Schulak JA. Pretransplant frequency of donor-specific, IFN-γ-producing lymphocytes is a manifestation of immunologic memory and correlates with the risk of posttransplant rejection episodes. J. Immunol. 163, 2267-2275 (2001).
96. Gebauer BS, Hricik DE, Atallah A et al. Evolution of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay for posttransplant alloreactivity as a potentially useful immune monitoring tool. Am. J. Transplant. 2, 857-866 (2002).
97. Piana F, Ruffo Codecasa L, Baldan R, Miotto P, Ferrarese M, Cirillo DM. Use of T-SPOT. TB in latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis in general and immunosuppressed populations. New Microbiol. 30 (3), 286-290 (2007).
98. Adetifa IM, Lugos MD, Hammond A et al. Comparison of two interferon γ release assays in the diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease in The Gambia. BMC Infect. Dis. 7, 122 (2007).
99. Kampmann B, Whittaker E, Williams A et al. Interferon-γ release assays do not identify more children with active tuberculosis than tuberculin skin test. Eur. Respir. J. 33 (6), 1250-1253 (2009).
100. Hooper CE, Lee YC, Maskell NA. Interferon-γ release assays for the diagnosis of TB pleural effusions: hype or real hope? Curr. Opin Pulm. Med. 15 (4), 358-365 (2009).
101. th Edition). International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Paris, France (1996).
102. Steingart KR, Ng V, Henry M et al. Sputum processing methods to improve the sensitivity of smear microscopy for tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 6 (10), 664-674 (2006).
103. Kibiki GS, Mulder B, van der Ven AJ et al. Laboratory diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in TB and HIV endemic settings and the contribution of real time PCR for M. tuberculosis in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Trop. Med. Int. Health 12 (10), 1210-1217 (2007).
104. Aris EA, Bakari M, Chonde TM, Kitinya J, Swai AB. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in sputum negative patients in Dar es Salaam. East Afr. Med. J. 76 (11), 630-634 (1999).
105. Chakravorty S, Sen MK, Tyagi JS. Diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis by smear, culture, and PCR using universal sample processing technology. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43 (9), 4357-4362 (2005).
106. Honscha G, Von Groll A, Valença M et al. The laboratory as a tool to qualify tuberculosis diagnosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12 (2), 218-220 (2008).
107. Mfinanga GS, Ngadaya E, Mtandu R et al. The quality of sputum smear microscopy diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Tanzan. Health Res. Bull. 9 (3), 164-168 (2007).
108. Alonso V, Paul R, Barrera L, Ritacco V. False diagnosis of tuberculosis by culture. Medicina (B Aires) 67 (3), 287-294 (2007).
109. Joh JS, Lee CH, Lee JE et al. The interval between initiation of anti-tuberculosis treatment in patients with culture-positive pulmonary tuberculosis and receipt of drug-susceptibility test results. J. Korean Med. Sci. 22 (1), 26-29 (2007).
110. Hobby GL, Holman AP, Iseman MD, Jones JM. Enumeration of tubercle bacilli in sputum of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 4 (2), 94-104 (1973).
111. Takashima T, Higuchi T. Mycobacterial tests. Kekkaku 83 (1), 43-59 (2008).
112. Perez-Stable EJ, Slutkin G. A demonstration of lack of variability among six tuberculin skin test readers. Am. J. Public Health 75 (11), 1341-1343 (1985).
113. Akcay A, Erdem Y, Altun B et al. The booster phenomenon in 2-step tuberculin skin testing of patients receiving long-term hemodialysis. Am. J. Infect. Control. 31 (6), 371-374 (2003).
114. Pepper T, Joseph P, Mwenya C et al. Normal chest radiography in pulmonary tuberculosis: implications for obtaining respiratory specimen cultures. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12 (4), 397-403 (2008).
115. van Cleeff MR, Kivihya-Ndugga LE, Meme H, Odhiambo JA, Klatser PR. The role and performance of chest x-ray for the diagnosis of tuberculosis: a costeffectiveness analysis in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Infect. Dis. 12 (5), 111 (2005).
116. Cho SN, Brennan PJ. Tuberculosis: diagnostics. Tuberculosis (Edinb.) 87 (Suppl. 1), S14-S17 (2007).
117. Sekiguchi J, Miyoshi-Akiyama T, Augustynowicz-Kopeć E et al. Detection of multidrug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45 (1), 179-192 (2007).
118. Sapkota BR, Ranjit C, Macdonald M. Rapid differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae from sputum by polymerase chain reaction. Nepal Med. Coll. J. 9 (1), 12-16 (2007).
119. Baba K, Pathak S, Sviland L et al. Real-time quantitative PCR in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded pleural tissue in patients from a high HIV endemic area. Diagn. Mol. Pathol. 17 (2), 112-117 (2008)
120. Pai M. The accuracy and reliability of nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. Natl Med. J. India 17 (5), 233-236 (2004).
121. Liu K T, Su WJ, Perng R P. Clinical utility of polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of smear-negative pleural tuberculosis. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 70 (4), 146-151 (2007).
122. Caws M, Tho DQ, Duy PM et al. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism for rapid, low-cost identification of isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45 (6), 1789-1793 (2007).
123. El-Masry S, El-Kady I, Zaghloul MH, Al-Badrawey MK. Rapid and simple detection of a mycobacterium circulating antigen in serum of pulmonary tuberculosis patients by using a monoclonal antibody and Fast-Dot-ELISA. Clin. Biochem. 41 (3), 145-151 (2008).
124. Raja A, Ranganathan UD, Bethunaickan R. Improved diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis by detection of antibodies against multiple Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 60 (4), 361-368 (2008).
125. Demkow U, Filewska M, Michalowska-Mitczuk D et al. Heterogeneity of antibody response to myobacterial antigens in different clinical manifestations of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 58 (Suppl. 5), S117-S127 (2007).
126. Attallah AM, Osman S, Saad A et al. Application of a circulating antigen detection immunoassay for laboratory diagnosis of extra-pulmonary and pulmonary tuberculosis. Clin. Chim. Acta 356 (1-2), 58-66 (2005).
127. Lee JS, Jo EK, Noh YK et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis using MTB12 and 38-kDa antigens. Respirology 13 (3), 432-437 (2008).
128. Nishimura T, Hasegawa N, Mori M et al. Accuracy of an interferon-γ release assay to detect active pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 12 (3), 269-274 (2008).
129. Mazurek GH, Jereb J, Lobue P et al. Guidelines for using the QuantiFERON-TB Gold test for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, United States. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 54 (RR-15), 49-55 (2005).
130. Brock I, Ruhwald M, Lundgren B, Westh H, Mathiesen LR, Ravn P. Latent tuberculosis in HIV positive, diagnosed by the M. tuberculosis specific interferon-γ test. Respir. Res. 7, 56 (2006).
131. Kanunfre KA, Leite OH, Lopes MI, Litvoc M, Ferreira AW. Enhancement of diagnostic efficiency by a γ interferon release assay for pulmonary tuberculosis. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 15 (6), 1028-1030 (2008).
132. Oztürk N, Sürücüoǧlu S, Ozkütük N et al. Comparison of interferon-γ whole blood assay with tuberculin skin test for the diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in tuberculosis contacts. Mikrobiyol. Bul. 41 (2), 193-202 (2007).
133. Lalvani A. Diagnosing tuberculosis infection in the 21st century: new tools to tackle an old enemy. Chest 131 (6), 1898-1906 (2007). •• Indicated the advantages of ELIspot over TST in diagnosing both active and latent TB infections, as well as monitoring treatment.
134. Menzies D, Pai M, Comstock G. Metaanalysis: new tests for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: areas of uncertainty and recommendations for research. Ann. Intern. Med. 146 (5), 340-354 (2007).
135. Kobashi Y, Mouri K, Obase Y, Fukuda M, Miyashita N, Oka M. Clinical evaluation of QuantiFERON TB-2G test for immunocompromised patients. Eur. Respir. J. 30 (5), 945-950 (2007).
136. Clark SA, Martin SL, Pozniak A et al. Tuberculosis antigen-specific immune responses can be detected using enzymelinked immunospot technology in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 patients with advanced disease. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 150 (2), 238-244 (2007).
137. Spyridis N, Chakraborty R, Sharland M, Heath PT. Early diagnosis of tuberculosis using an INF-γ assay in a child with HIV-1 infection and a very low CD4 count. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 39 (10), 919-921 (2007).
138. Ozekinci T, Ozbek E, Celik Y Comparison of tuberculin skin test and a specific T-cell-based test, T-Spot. TB, for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection. J. Int. Med. Res. 35 (5), 696-703 (2007).
139. Adams LV, Waddell RD, Von Reyn CF. T-SPOT. TB Test™ results in adults with Mycobacterium avium complex pulmonary disease. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 40 (3), 196-203 (2008).
140. Kim SH, Choi SJ, Kim HB, Kim NJ, Oh MD, Choe KW. Diagnostic usefulness of a T-cell based assay for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (20), 2255-2259 (2007).