Nitrogen transformation in wetlands and marshes

Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment

Volumn 7, Issue 3-4, 2009, Pages 946-954

  Huang, Shuhui ^a,b   Pant, Hari K ^b  

^a WENZHOU MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

^b CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Biogeochemical cycle; Nitrogen; Primary production; Sediments; Wetlands

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; HEAVY METAL; NITROGEN; NITROUS OXIDE; SODIUM CHLORIDE; STORM WATER;

CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; COASTAL WATERS; CONSTRUCTED WETLAND; FERTILIZATION; GRAZING; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION; REVIEW; SEA; VEGETATION; WETLAND;

INVERTEBRATA;

EID: 73949107302     PISSN: 14590255     EISSN: 14590263     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Reed, S.C., Middlebrooks, E.J. and Crites, R.W. 1988. Natural Systems for Wastewater Management and Treatment. McGraw and Hill Inc., New York, pp. 119-123.
2. Hammer, D.A. 1992. Designing constructed wetlands systems to treat agricultural non-point source pollution. Ecol. Eng. 1:49-82.
3. Knight, R.L. 1992. Ancillary benefits and potential problems with the use of wetlands for non-point source pollution control. Ecol. Eng. 1: 97-113.
4. Mitsch, W.J. and Cronk, J.K. 1992. Creation and restoration of wetlands: some design consideration for ecological engineering. Adv. Soil Sci. 17: 217-255.
5. Arheimer, B. and Wittgren, H. 1995. Modeling the effects of wetlands on regional nitrogen transport. Am. Biol. 23:378-386.
6. Kadlec, R.H. and Knight, R.L. 1996. Treatment Wetlands. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 892-893.
7. Comin, F.A., Romero, J.A., Astorga, V. and Garcia, C. 1997. Nitrogen removal and cycling in restored wetlands used as filters of nutrients for agricultural run-off. Water Sci. Technol. 33:225-261.
8. Fink, D.F. and Mitsch, W.J. 2004. Seasonal and storm event nutrient removal by a created wetland in an agricultural watershed. Ecol. Eng. 23:313-325.
9. Mitsch, W.J., Day, J.W., Gilliam, J.W., Groffman, P.M., Hey, D.L., Randall, G.W. and Wang, N. 2001. Reducing nitrogen loading to the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi Basin: Strategies to counter a present ecological problem. BioScience 51:373-388.
10. Nixon, S.W. 1980. Between coastal marshes and coastal waters-a review of twenty years of speculation and research on the role of salt marshes in estuarine productivity and water chemistry. In Hamilton, P. and McDonald, K.B. (eds). Estuarine and Wetland Processes with Emphasis on Modeling. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 437-525.
11. Zhou, J., Wu, Y., Zhang, J., Kang, Q. and Liu, Z. 2006. Carbon and nitrogen composition and stable isotope as potential indicators of source and fate of organic matter in the salt marsh of the Changjiang Estuary, China. Chemosphere 65:310-317.
12. Valiela, I. and Teal, J.M. 1979. The nitrogen budget of a salt-marsh ecosystem. Nature 280:652-656.
13. DeLaune, R.D., Smith, C.J. and Patrick, W.H. 1983. Nitrogen losses from a Louisiana Gulf Coast salt marsh. Estuar. Coast. Shelf S. 17: 133-141.
14. Hopkinson, C.S. and Schubauer, J.P. 1984. Static and dynamic aspects of nitrogen cycling in the salt marsh graminoid Spartina alterniflora. Ecology 65:961-969.
15. Aziz, S.A. and Nedwell, D.B. 1986. The nitrogen cycle of an East Coast, U.K. saltmarsh: II. Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, tidal exchange. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci. 22:689-704.
16. Jeffrey, D.W. 1987. Saltmarshes and the coastal zone. In Jeffrey, D.W.(ed.).Soil-Plant Relationships.Timber Press, Portland, pp. 235-256.
17. Pejrup, M., Bartholdy, J. and Jensen, A. 1993. Supply and exchange of water and nutrients in the Gradyb tidal area, Denmark. Estuar. Coast. Shelf. S. 36:221-234.
18. Vernberg, F.J. 1993. Salt-marsh processes: A review. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12:2167-2195.
19. Leendertse, P.C., Roozen, A.J.M. and Rozema, J. 1997. Long-term changes (1953-1990) in the salt marsh vegetation at the Boschplaat on Terschelling in relation to sedimentation and flooding. Plant Ecol. 132: 49-58.
20. van Wijnen, H.J. and Bakker, J.P. 2000. Annual nitrogen budget of a temperate coastal barrier salt-marsh system along a productivity gradient at low and high marsh elevation. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 3:128-141.
21. Kiehl, K., Esselink, P. and Bakker, J.P. 1997. Nutrient limitation and plant species composition in temperate salt marshes. Oecologia 111: 325-330.
22. Jickells, T.D. 1998. Nutrient biogeochemistry of the coastal zone. Science 281:217-222.
23. Eriksson, P.G., Svensson, J.M. and Carrer, G.M. 2003. Temporal changes and spatial variation of soil oxygen consumption, nitrification and denitrification rates in a tidal salt marsh of the Lagoon of Venice, Italy. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 58:861-871.
24. Whiting, G.J., McKeller, Jr, H.N., Spurrier, J.D. and Wolaver, T.G. 1989. Nitrogen exchange between a portion of vegetated salt marsh and the adjoining creek. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34:463-473.
25. Chambers, R.M., Smith, S.V. and Hollibaugh, J.T. 1994. An ecosystemlevel context for tidal exchange studies in salt marshes of Tomales Bay, California, USA. In Mitsch, W.J. (ed.). Global Wetlands, Old World and New. Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, pp. 265-276.
26. Thompson, S.P., Paerl, H.W. and Go, M.C. 1995. Seasonal patterns of nitrification and denitrification in a natural and a restored salt marsh. Estuaries 18:399-406.
27. Tiedje, J.M. 1988. Ecology of denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium. In Zehnder, A.J.B. (ed.), Biology of Anaerobic Microorganisms. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 179-244.
28. Gersberg, R.M., Elkins, B.V. and Goldman, C.R. 1983. Nitrogen removal in artificial wetlands. Water Res. 17:1009-1014.
29. Hammer, D.A. and Bastian, R.K. 1989. Wetlands ecosystems: natural water purifiers? In Hammer, D.A. (ed.). Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Municipal, Industrial, and Agricultural. Lewis Publishers Inc., Chelsea, MI, 831 p.
30. Baker, L.A. 1994. Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality in the Arid West? Universities' Council on Water Resources, Big Sky, MT.
31. Baker, L.A. 1998. Design considerations and applications for wetland treatment of high-nitrate waters.Water Sci. Technol. 38:389-395.
32. Davidsson, T.E. and Leonardson, L.G. 1996. Effects of nitrate and organic carbon additions on denitrification in two artificially flooded soils. Ecol. Eng. 7:139-149.
33. Fleming-Singer, M.S. and Horne, A.J. 2006. Balancing wildlife needs and nitrate removal in constructed wetlands: The case of the Irvine Ranch Water District's San Joaquin Wildlife Sanctuary. Ecol. Eng. 26(2):147-166.
34. Gale, P.M., Reddy, K.R. and Graetz, D.A. 1993. Nitrogen removal from reclaimed water applied to constructed and natural wetland microcosms. Water Environ. Res. 65:162-168.
35. Phipps, R.G. and Crumpton,W.G. 1994. Factors affecting nitrogen loss in experimental wetlands with different hydrologic loads. Ecol. Eng. 3: 399-408.
36. Reilly, J.F., Horne, A.J. and Miller, C.D. 2000. Nitrate removal from a drinking water supply with large free-surface constructed wetlands prior to groundwater recharge. Ecol. Eng. 14:33-47.
37. USEPA 1988. Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Design Manual. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, pp. 88.
38. Bachand, P.A.M. and Horne, A.J. 2000. Denitrification in constructed freewater surface wetlands: very high nitrate removal rates in macrocosm study. Ecol. Eng. 14:9-16.
39. Valiela, I., McClelland, J., Hauxwell, J., Behr, P.J., Hersh, J. and Foreman, K. 1997a. Macroalgal blooms in shallow estuaries: controls and ecophysiological and ecosystem consequences. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1105 -1118.
40. Valiela, I., Collins, G., Kremer, J., Lajtha, K., Geist, M., Seely, B., Brawley, J. and Sham, C.H. 1997b. Nitrogen loading from coastal watersheds to receiving estuaries: New method and application. Ecol. Appl. 7:358-380.
41. Evgenidou, A. and Valiela, I. 2002. Response of growth and density of a population of Geukensia demissa to land-derived nitrogen loading, in Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 55:125-138.
42. Hwang, D., Kim, G., Lee, Y. and Yang, H. 2005 Estimating submarine inputs of groundwater and nutrients to a coastal bay using radium isotopes. Mar. Chem. 96:61-71.
43. Vymazal, J. 1995. Algae and Element Cycling in Wetlands. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 18-20.
44. Havens, K.E., East, T.L., Rodusky, A.J. and Sharfstein, B. 1999. Littoral periphyton responses to nitrogen and phosphorus: An experimental study in a subtropical lake. Aquat. Bot. 63:267-290.
45. Olff, H., de Leeuw, J., Bakker, J.P., Platerink, R.J., van Wijnen, H.J. and de Munck, W. 1997. Vegetation succession and herbivory in a salt marsh: changes induced by sea level rise and silt deposition along an elevational gradient. Journal of Ecology 85:799-814.
46. van Wijnen, H.J. and Bakker, J.P. 1997. Nitrogen accumulation and plant species replacement in three salt marsh systems in the Wadden Sea. Journal of Coastal Conservation 3:19-26.
47. Allen, S., Jose, S., Nair, P.K.R., Brecke, B.J., Nair, V.D., Graetz, D.A. and Ramsey, C.L. 2005. Nitrogen mineralization under a pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch)-cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) alley cropping system in the southern United States. Biol. Fert. Soils 41(1):28-37.
48. Nixon, S.W., Oviatt, C.A., Frithsen, J. and Sullivan, B. 1986. Nutrients and the productivity of estuarine and coastal marine environments. Journal of the Limnological Society of South Africa 12:43-71.
49. Valiela, I., Costa, J., Foreman, K., Teal, J.M., Howes, B. and Aubrey, D. 1990. Transport of groundwater-borne nutrients from watersheds and their effect on coastal waters. Biogeochemistry 10:177-197.
50. nd edn. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 385-461.
51. Valiela, I. 1995. Marine Ecological Processes. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 686.
52. Bennett, A., Bianchi, T.S. and Means J.C. 2000. The effects of PAH contamination and grazing on the abundance and composition of microphytobenthos in salt marsh sediments (Pass Fourchon, LA, U.S.A.): II: The use of plant pigments as biomarkers. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 50:425-439.
53. Cambridge, M.L. and McComb, A.J. 1984. The loss of seagrasses in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. I. The time course and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial development. Aquat. Bot. 20:229-243.
54. Sfriso, A., Paveni, B., Marcomini, A. and Orio, A.A. 1992. Macroalgae, nutrient cycles, and pollutants in the Lagoon of Venice. Estuaries 15: 517-528.
55. D'Avanzo, C. and Kremer, J. 1994. Diel oxygen dynamics and anoxic events in an eutrophic estuary of Waquoit Bay, Mass. Estuaries 17:131-139.
56. Meuleman, A.F.M., van Logtestijn, R., Rijs, G.B.J. and Verhoeven, J.T.A. 2003. Water and mass budgets of a vertical-flow constructed wetland used for wastewater treatment. Ecol. Eng. 20:31-44.
57. Knowles, R. 2005. Denitrifiers associated with methanotrophs and their potential impact on the nitrogen cycle. Ecol. Eng. 24:441-446.
58. Mitsch, W.J., Zhang, L., Anderson, C.J., Altor, A.E. and Hernandez, M.E. 2005. Creating riverine wetlands: Ecological succession, nutrient retention, and pulsing effects. Ecol. Eng. 25:510-527.
59. Koch, M.S., Maltby, E., Oliver, G.A. and Bakker, S.A. 1992. Factors controlling denitrification rates of tidal mudflats and fringing salt marshes in south-west England. Estuarine. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 34: 471- 485.
60. Kaplan, W., Valiela, I. and Teal, J.M. 1979. Denitrification in a salt marsh ecosystem. Limnol. Oceanogr. 24:726-734.
61. Valiela, I., Teal, J.M. and Persson, N.Y. 1976. Production and dynamics of experimentally enriched salt marsh vegetation, belowground biomass. Limnol. Oceanogr. 21:245 - 252.
62. Wulf, S., Lehmann, J. and Zech, W. 1999. Emissions of nitrous oxide from runoff-irrigated and rainfed soils in semiarid north-west Kenya. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 72:201-205.
63. Hernandez, M.E. and Mitsch, W.J. 2006. Influence of hydrologic pulses, flooding frequency, and vegetation on nitrous oxide emissions from created riparian marshes. Wetlands 26:862-877.
64. Pennings, S.C. and Callaway, R.M. 1992. Salt-marsh plant zonation and the relative importance of competition and physical factors. Ecology 73:681-690.
65. Safinchez, J.M., Otero, X.L. and Izco, J. 1998. Relationships between vegetation and environmental characteristics in a salt-marsh system on the coast of Northwest Spain. Plant Ecol. 136:1-8.
66. Blair, J.M., Seastedt, T.R., Rice, C.W. and Ramundo, R.A. 1998. Terrestrial nutrient cycling in Tallgrass prairie. Grassland Dynamics. In Knapp, A.K., Briggs, J.M., Hartnett, D.C. and Collins, S.L. (eds). Long Term Ecological Research in Tallgrass Prairie. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 222-243.
67. Kaye, J.P. and Hart, S.C. 1997. Competition for nitrogen between plants and soil microorganisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12: 139-143.
68. Berendse, F. and Aerts, R. 1987 Nitrogen-use efficiency: A biological meaningful definition. Functional Ecology 1:293-296.
69. Carter, V. 1986. An overview of the hydrologic conditions related to wetlands in the United States. Can. J. Bot. 64:364-374.
70. Zurayk, R., Nimah, M., Geha, Y. and Rizk, C. 1997. Phosphorus retention in the soil matrix of constructed wetlands. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 28:521-535.
71. Sakadevan, K. and Bavor, H.J. 1999. Nutrient removal mechanisms in constructed wetlands and sustainable water management. Water Sci. Technol. 40:121-128.
72. rd edn. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, NY, 920 p.
73. Kadlec, R.H. 2003. Pond and wetland treatment.Water Sci. Technol. 48:1-8.
74. Svenssonb, J.M. and Carrer, G.M. 2003. Temporal changes and spatial variation of soil oxygen consumption, nitrification and denitrification rates in a tidal salt marsh of the Lagoon of Venice, Italy. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 58:861-871.
75. Alongi, D.M., Pfitzner, J., Trott, L.A., Tirendi, F. and Dixon, P. and Klumpp, D.K. 2005. Rapid sediment accumulation and microbial mineralization in forests of the mangrove Kandelia candel in the Jiulongjiang Estuary, China. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 63:605-618.
76. SAWPA 1995. Surface Water Hydrology and Hydraulics; Groundwater Well Installation, Sampling and Analysis; Surface Water Quality Analysis; and Hydrologic, Nitrogen, and Total Organic Carbon Budgets. Submitted to State Water Resources Control Board in Fulfillment of State Contract No. 1-082-250-0, Santa Ana Watershed Project Authority, Riverside, CA.
77. Lund, L.J., Horne, A.J. and Williams, A.E. 2000. Estimating denitrification in a large constructed wetland using stable nitrogen isotope ratios. Ecol. Eng. 14:67-76.
78. Ciceka, N., Lamberta, S., Venemab, H.D. and Snelgrov K.R. 2006. Nutrient removal and bio-energy production from Netley-Libau Marsh at Lake Winnipeg through annual biomass harvesting. Biomass and Bioenergy 30(6):529-536.
79. Knight, R.L. 1990. Wetlands Systems. In Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment, Manual of Practice FD-16. Water Pollution Control Federation, Alexandria, VA, pp. 211-260.
80. Rogers, K.H., Breen, P.F. and Chick, A.J. 1993. Nitrogen removal in experimental wetland treatment systems: Evidence for the role of aquatic plants. Res. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 65:934-941.
81. nd edn. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 406 p.
82. Kadlec, R.H. and Tilton, D.L. 1978. Wastewater treatment via wetlands irrigation: nutrient dynamics. In Dre, M.A. (ed.). Environmental Quality through Wetlands Utilization. Proc. a Symposium Sponsored by the Coordinating Council on the Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin, Tallahassee, FL, pp. 153-170.
83. Nichols, D.S. 1983. Capacity of natural wetlands to remove nutrients from wastewater. J. Water Pollut. Cont. Fed. 55:495-505.
84. Moustafa, M.Z., Chimney, M.J., Fontaine, T.D., Shih, G. and Davis, S. 1996.The response of a freshwater wetland to long-term "low level" nutrient loads - marsh efficiency. Ecol. Eng. 7:15-33.
85. Howard-Williams, C. 1985. Cycling and nutrient retention of nitrogen and phosphorus in wetlands: A theoretical and applied perspective. Freshwater Biol. 15:391-431.
86. Mitsch, W.J., Mitsch, R.H. and Turner, R.E. 1994. Wetlands of the old and new worlds-ecology and management. In Mitsch, W.J. (ed.). Global Wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 3-56.
87. Wetzel, R.G. 1993. Constructed wetlands: Scientific foundations are critical. In Moshiri, G.A. (ed.). Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 3-7.
88. Kovacic, D.A., Gentry, M.B. and Lowell, E. 2000. Effectiveness of constructed wetlands in reducing nitrogen and phosphorus export from agricultural tile drainage. J. Environ. Qual. 29:1262-1274.
89. Redfield, A.C. 1972. Development of a New England salt marsh. Ecol. Monogr. 42:201-237.
90. Middelburg, J.J., Nieuwenhuize, J., Lubberts, R.K. and van de Plassche, O. 1997. Organic carbon isotope systematics of coastal marshes. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 45:681-687.
91. Leonard, L.A. and Luther, M.E. 1995. Flow hydrodynamics in tidal marsh canopies. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40:1474-1484.
92. Winter, P.E.D., Schlacher, T.A. and Baird, D. 1996. Carbon flux between an estuary and the ocean; a case for outwelling. Hydrobiologia 337: 123-132.
93. Bouchard, V. and Lefeuvre, J.C. 2000. Primary production and macrodetritus dynamics in a European salt marsh, carbon and nitrogen budgets. Aquat. Bot. 67:23-42.
94. Church, T.M. 1991. Biogeochemical processes in model estuaries. EOS 74:595-598.
95. Church, T.M., Sommerfield, C.K., Velinsky, D.J., Point, D., Benoit, C., Amouroux, D., Plaa, D. and Donard, O.F.X. 2006. Marsh sediments as records of sedimentation, eutrophication and metal pollution in the urban Delaware. Estuary Mar. Chem. 102:72-95.
96. Boyer, K.E., Fong, P., Vance, R.R. and Ambrose, R.F. 2001. Salicornia virginica in a southern California saltmarsh: Seasonal patterns and a nutrient enrichment experiment. Wetlands 21:315-326.
97. Lavery, P.S. and McComb, A.J. 1991. Macroalgal-sediment nutrient interactions and their importance to macroalgal nutrition in a eutrophic estuary. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 32:281-295.
98. Koch, M.S., Mendelssohn, I.A. and McKee, K.L. 1990. Mechanisms for the hydrogen sulfide-induced growth limitation of Spartina alterniflora and Panicum hemitomon. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35:399-408.
99. De la Cruz, A.A. and Hackney, C.T. 1977. Energy value, elemental composition, and productivity of below-ground biomass of a Juncus tidal marsh. Ecology 58:1165-1170.
100. Schubauer, J.P. and Hopkinson, C.S. 1984. Above and below ground emergent macrophyte woduction and turnover in a coastal marsh ecosystem, Georgia. Limnol. Oceanogr. 29:1052-1065.
101. Wrubleski, D.A., Murkin, H.R. and van der Valk, A.G. 1997. Decomposition of emergent macrophyte roots and rhizomes in a northern prairie marsh. Aquat. Bot. 58:121-134.
102. Omer, L.St. 2004. Small-scale resource heterogeneity among halophytic plant species in an upper salt marsh community. Aquat. Bot. 78:337-448.
103. Lefeuvre, J.C. and Dame, R.F. 1994. Comparative studies of salt marsh processes in the New and Old Worlds: an introduction. In Mitsch, W.J. (ed.). GlobalWetlands: Old and NewWorld. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 169-179.
104. Adam, P. 1990. Saltmarsh Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 461 p.
105. Packham, J.R. and Willis, A.J. 1997. Ecology of Dunes, Salt Marsh and Shingle. Chapman & Hall, London, 335 p.
106. Beeftink, W.G. 1977. The coastal salt marshes of Western and Northern Europe: An ecological and phytosociological approach. In Chapman, V.J. (ed.). Wet Coastal Ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 109-155.
107. Wolff, W.J., van Eeden, M.N. and Lammens, E. 1979. Primary production and import of particulate organic matter on a salt marsh in the Netherlands. Neth. J. Sea. Res. 13:242-255.
108. Boorman, L.A., Hazelden, J., Loveland, P.J., Wells, J.G. and Levasseur, J.E. 1994. Comparative relationship between primary production and organic and nutrient fluxes in four European salt marshes. In Mitsch, W.J. (ed.). Global Wetlands: Old World and New. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 181-200.
109. Creach, V., Schricke, M.T., Bertru, G. and Mariotti, A. 1997. Stable isotopes and gut analyses to determine feeding relationships in saltmarsh macroconsumers. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 44:599-611.
110. Bertness, M.D. and Ellison, A.M. 1987. Determinants of pattern in a New England salt marsh plant community. Ecol. Monogr. 57:129-147.
111. Woerner, L.S. and Hackney, C.T. 1997. Distribution of Juncus roemerianus in North Carolina tidal marshes: the importance of physical and biotic variables. Wetlands 17:284-291.
112. Alvarez Rogel, J., Alcaraz Ariza, F. and Ortiz Silla, R. 2000. Soil salinity and moisture gradients and plant zonation in Mediterranean salt marshes of Southeast Spain. Wetlands 20:357-372.
113. Mitsch, W.J., Horne, A.J. and Nairn, R.W. 2000. Nitrogen and phosphorus retention in wetlands-ecological approaches to solving excess nutrient problems. Ecol. Eng. 14:1-7.
114. 2 profiles in a tagus estuary salt marsh. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 48:751-756.
115. Gandy, E.L. and Yoch, D.C. 1998. Relationship between nitrogen-fixing sulfate reducers and fermenters in salt marsh sediments and roots of Spartina alterniflora. Appl. Environ. Microb. 64:2031-2036.
116. Prokopenko, M.G., Hammond, D.E., Berelson, W.M., Bernhard, J.M., Stott, L. and Douglas, R. 2006. Nitrogen cycling in the sediments of Santa Barbara basin and Eastern Subtropical North Pacific: Nitrogen isotopes, diagenesis and possible chemosymbiosis between two lithotrophs (Thioploca and Anammox)-briding on a glider. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 242:186-204.
117. 2 through anaerobic ammonium oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction in marine sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1312-1318.
118. Sigman, D.M., Altabet, M.A., Michener, R., McCorkle, D.C., Fry, B. and Holmes, R.M. 1997. Natural abundance-level measurement of the nitrogen isotopic composition of oceanic nitrate: An adaptation of the ammonia diffusion method. Mar. Chem. 57:227-242.
119. Osgood, D.T. and Zieman, J.C. 1998. The influence of subsurface hydrology on nutrient supply and smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) production in a developing barrier island marsh. Estuaries 21:767-783.
120. 16O of nitrate as a constraint on benthic nitrogen cycling. Mar. Chem. 88:1-20.
121. Day, Jr, J.W., Ko, J., Rybczyk, J., Sabins, D., Bean, R., Berthelot, G., Brantley, C., Cardoch, L., Conner, W., Day, J.N., Englande, A.J., Feagley, S., Hyfield, E., Lane, R., Lindsey, J., Mistich, J., Reyes, E. and Twillery, R. 2004. The use of wetlands in the Mississippi delta for wastewater assimilation: A review. Ocean & Coastal Management 47:671-691.
122. Cartaxana, P., Caçador, I., Vale, C., Falcão, M. and Catarino, F. 1999. Seasonal variation of inorganic nitrogen and net mineralization in a salt marsh ecosystem. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 3:127-134.
123. Boyer, K.E. and Fong, P. 2005. Macroalgal-mediated transfers of water column nitrogen to intertidal sediments and salt marsh plants. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 321:59-69.
124. Tyler, A.C. and Zieman, J.C. 1998. Patterns of development in the creekbank region of a barrier island Spartina alterniflora marsh. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 180:161-177.
125. Tyler, A.C., McGlathery, K.J. and Anderson, I.C. 2001. Macroalgae mediation of dissolved organic nitrogen fluxes in a temperate coastal lagoon. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 53:155-168.
126. Osgood, D.T. and Zieman, J.C. 1995. Sediment physico-chemistry associated with natural marsh development on a storm-deposited sand flat. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 20:271-283.
127. Bolam, S.F., Fernandes, T.F., Read, P. and Raffaelli, D. 2000. Effects of macroalgal mats on intertidal sandflats: An experimental study. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 249:123-137.
128. th edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
129. Hemminga, M.A., van Soelen, J. and Maas, Y.E.M. 1998. Biomass production in pioneer Spartina anglica patches: Evidence for the importance of seston particle deposition. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 47: 797-805.
130. Dam, H.G., Roman, M.R. and Youngbluth, M.J. 1995. Downward export of respiratory carbon and dissolved inorganic nitrogen by dielmigrant mesozooplankton at the JGOFS Bermuda time-series station. Deep-Sea Research 42:1187-1197.