Diagnosis of viral infections

Clinical Virology: Third Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2022, Pages 265-294

  Boivin, Guy ^a   Mazzulli, Tony ^b   Petric, Martin ^c   Couillard, Michel ^d  

^a LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^c BRITISH COLUMBIA CENTRE FOR DISEASE CONTROL   (Canada)

^d INSTITUT NATIONAL DE SANTÉ PUBLIQUE DU QUÉBEC   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antiviral susceptibility testing; Cell culture; Serodiagnosis; Viral infections

Indexed keywords

EID: 73649133275     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1128/9781555815981.ch13     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. Abed, Y., A. M. Bourgault, R. J. Fenton, P. J. Morley, D. Gower, I. J. Owens, M. Tisdale, G. Boivin. 2002. Characterization of 2 influenza A(H3N2) clinical isolates with reduced susceptibility to neuraminidase inhibitors due to mutations in the hemagglutinin gene. J. Infect. Dis. 186:1074-1080.
2. Abed, Y., I. Hardy, Y. Li, G. Boivin. 2002. Divergent evolution of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes in recent influenza A:H3N2 viruses isolated in Canada. J. Med. Virol. 67:589-595.
3. Allander, T., M. T. Tammi, M. Eriksson, A. Bjerkner, A. Tiveljung-Lindell, B. Andersson. 2005. Cloning of a human parvovirus by molecular screening of respiratory tract samples. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 12891-12896.
4. Andiman, W. A. 1991. Organism-specific antibody indices, the cerebrospinal fluid-immunoglobulin index and other tools: a clinician's guide to the etiologic diagnosis of central nervous system infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 10:490-495.
5. Arens, M. Q., E. M. Swierkosz. 2007. Susceptibility test methods: viruses, p. 1705-1718. In P.R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. L. Landry, M. A. Pfaller (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
6. Ballew, H. C. 2000. Neutralization, p. 127-134. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
7. Baz, M., Y. Abed, J. McDonald, G. Boivin. 2006. Characterization of multidrug-resistant influenza A/ H3N2 viruses shed during 1 year by an immunocompromised child. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43:1555-1561.
8. Bellisario, R., R. J. Colinas, K. A. Pass. 2001. Simultaneous measurement of antibodies to three HIV-1 antigens in newborn dried blood-spot specimens using a multiplexed microsphere-based immunoassay. Early. Hum. Dev. 64:21-25.
9. Belshe, R. B., B. Burk, F. Newman, R. L. Cerruti, I. S. Sim. 1989. Resistance of influenza A virus to amantadine and rimantadine: results of one decade of surveillance. J. Infect. Dis. 159:430-435.
10. Bettoli, E. J., P. M. Brewer, M. J. Oxtoby, A. A. Zaidi, M. E. Guinan. 1982. The role of temperature and swab materials in the recovery of herpes simplex virus from lesions. J. Infect. Dis. 145:399.
11. Biel, S. S., H. R. Gelderblom. 1999. Diagnostic electron microscopy is still a timely and rewarding method. J. Clin. Virol. 13:105-119.
12. Biggar, R. J., W. Miley, P. Miotti, T. E. Taha, A. Butcher, J. Spadoro, D. Waters. 1997. Blood collection on filter paper: a practical approach to sample collection for studies of perinatal HIV transmission. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 14:368373.
13. Blackburn, N. K., T. G. Besselaar, B. D. Schoub, K. F. O'Connell. 1991. Differentiation of primary cytomegalovirus infection from reactivation using the urea denaturation test for measuring antibody avidity. J. Med. Virol. 33:6-9.
14. Boivin, G., S. Chou, M. R. Quirk, A. Erice, M. C. Jordan. 1996. Detection of ganciclovir resistance mutations and quantitation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in leukocytes of patients with fatal disseminated CMV disease. J. Infect. Dis. 173:523-528.
15. Boivin, G., C. K. Edelman, L. Pedneault, C. L. Talarico, K. K. Biron, H. H. Balfour, Jr. 1994. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of acyclovir-resistant varicella-zoster viruses isolated from persons with AIDS. J. Infect. Dis. 170:68-75.
16. Boivin, G., C. Gilbert, A. Gaudreau, I. Greenfield, R. Sudlow, N. A. Roberts. 2001. Rate of emergence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) mutations in leukocytes of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome who are receiving valganciclovir as induction and maintenance therapy for CMV retinitis. J. Infect. Dis. 184:1598-1602.
17. Boivin, G., N. Goyette, C. Gilbert, A. Humar, E. Covington. 2005. Clinical impact of ganciclovir-resistant cytomegalovirus infections in solid organ transplant patients. Transplant Infect. Dis. 7:166-170.
18. Boucher, C. A., W. Keulen, T. van Bommel, M. Ni- jhuis, D. de Jong, M. D. de Jong, P. Schipper, N. K. Back. 1996. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 drug susceptibility determination by using recombinant viruses generated from patient sera tested in a cell-killing assay. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2404-2409.
19. Brown, M., M. Petric, P. J. Middleton. 1984. Silver staining of DNA restriction fragments for the rapid identification of adenovirus isolates: application during nosocomial outbreaks. J. Virol. Methods 9:87-98.
20. Cane, P. A., P. Cook, D. Ratcliffe, D. Mutimer, D. Pillay. of real-time PCR and fluorimetry to detect lamivudine resistance-associated mutations in hepatitis B virus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:16001608.
21. Carpenter, A. B. 2007. Immunoassays for the diagnosis of infectious diseases, p. 257-270. In P.R. Murray, E. J. Baron, M. A. Pfaller, F. C. Tenover, R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
22. Chan, P. K., W. K. To, K. C. Ng, R. K. Lam, T. K. Ng, R. C. Chan, A. Wu, W. C. Yu, N. Lee, D. S. Hui, S. T. Lai, E. K. Hon, C. K. Li, J. J. Sung, J. S. Tam. 2004. Laboratory diagnosis of SARS. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10:825-831.
23. Chou, S., S. Guentzel, K. R. Michels, R. C. Miner, W. L. Drew. 1995. Frequency of UL97 phosphotransferase mutations related to ganciclovir resistance in clinical cytomegalovirus isolates. J. Infect. Dis. 172:239-242.
24. Chou, S., N. S. Lurain, K. D. Thompson, R. C. Miner, W. L. Drew. 2003. Viral DNA polymerase mutations associated with drug resistance in human cytomegalovirus. J. Infect. Dis. 188:32-39.
25. Condorelli, F., G. Scalia, A. Stivala, R. Gallo, A. Marino, C. M. Battaglini, A. Castro. 1994. Detection of immunoglobulin G to measles virus, rubella virus, mumps virus in serum samples and in microquantities of whole blood dried on filter paper. J. Virol. Methods 49: 25-36.
26. Constantine, N. T., R. Saville, E. Dax. 2005. Retroviral Testing and Quality Assurance: Essentials for Laboratory Diagnosis. Malloy Printers.
27. Curry, A., H. Appleton, B. Dowsett. 2006. Application of transmission electron microscopy to the clinical study of viral and bacterial infections: present and future. Micron 37:91-106.
28. Dankner, W. M., D. Scholl, S. C. Stanat, M. Martin, R. L. Sonke, S. A. Spector. 1990. Rapid antiviral DNA-DNA hybridization assay for human cytomegalovirus. J. Virol. Methods 28:293-298.
29. De Mezerville, M. H., R. Tellier, S. Richardson, D. Hebert, J. Doyle, U. Allen. 2006. Adenoviral infections in pediatric transplant recipients: a hospital-based study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25: 815-818.
30. Drachenberg, C. B., H. H. Hirsch, E. Ramos, J. C. Papadimitriou. 2005. Polyomavirus disease in renal transplantation: review of pathological findings and diagnostic methods. Hum. Pathol. 36: 1245-1255.
31. Drosten, C., S. Gunther, W. Preiser, S. van der Werf, H. R. Brodt, S. Becker, H. Rabenau, M. Panning, L. Kolesnikova, R. A. Fouchier, A. Berger, A. M. Burgui- ere, J. Cinatl, M. Eickmann, N. Escriou, K. Grywna, S. Kramme, J. C. Manuguerra, S. Muller, V. Rickerts, M. Sturmer, S. Vieth, H. D. Klenk, A. D. Osterhaus, H. Schmitz, H. W. Doerr. 2003. Identification of a novel coronavirus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1967-1976.
32. Dunn, D. T., C. D. Brandt, A. Krivine, S. A. Cassol, P. Roques, W. Borkowsky, A. De Rossi, E. Denamur, A. Ehrnst, C. Loveday. 1995. The sensitivity of HIV- 1 DNA polymerase chain reaction in the neonatal period and the relative contributions of intra-uterine and intrapartum transmission. AIDS 9:F7-11.
33. Dunn, J. J., R. D. Woolstenhulme, J. Langer, K. C. Carroll. 2004. Sensitivity of respiratory virus culture when screening with R-Mix fresh cells. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:79-82.
34. Dybul, M., A. S. Fauci, J. G. Bartlett, J. E. Kaplan, A. K. Pau. 2002. Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Recommendations of the Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. Recomm. Rep. 51:1-55.
35. Enders, J. F., T. H. Weller, F. C. Robbins. 1949. Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissues. Science 109: 85-87.
36. Erdman, D. D. 2000. Immunoglobulin M determinations, p. 146-153. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
37. Erice, A., S. Chou, K. K. Biron, S. C. Stanat, H. H. Balfour, Jr., M. C. Jordan. 1989. Progressive disease due to ganciclovir-resistant cytomegalovirus in immunocompromised patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 320:289-293.
38. Espy, M. J., J. R. Uhl, P. S. Mitchell, J. N. Thorvilson, K. A. Svien, A. D. Wold, T. F. Smith. 2000. Diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections in the clinical laboratory by LightCycler PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 795-799.
39. Fahy, E., D. Y. Kwoh, T. R. Gingeras. 1991. Selfsustained sequence replication (3SR): an isothermal transcription-based amplification system alternative to PCR. PCR Methods Appl. 1:25-33.
40. Feld, J. J., J. H. Hoofnagle. 2005. Mechanism of action of interferon and ribavirin in treatment of hepatitis C. Nature 436:967-972.
41. Feller, A. E., J. F. Enders, T. H. Weller. 1940. The prolonged coexistence of vaccinia virus in high titre and living cells in roller tube cultures of chick embryonic tissues. J. Exp. Med. 72:367-388.
42. Forman, M. S., A. Valsamakis. 2007. Specimen collection, transport, processing: virology, p. 1284-1296. In P.R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. L. Landry, M. A. Pfaller (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
43. Fulton, R. J., R. L. McDade, P. L. Smith, L. J. Kienker, J. R. Kettman, Jr. 1997. Advanced multiplexed analysis with the FlowMetrix system. Clin. Chem. 43:17491756.
44. Gey, G. O. 1933. An improved technique for massive tissue culture. Am. J. Cancer 17:752-756.
45. Gilbert, C., G. Boivin. 2003. Discordant phenotypes and genotypes of cytomegalovirus (CMV) in patients with AIDS and relapsing CMV retinitis. AIDS 17:337-341.
46. Gilbert, C., J. Handfield, E. Toma, R. Lalonde, M. G. Bergeron, G. Boivin. 1998. Emergence and prevalence of cytomegalovirus UL97 mutations associated with ganciclovir resistance in AIDS patients. AIDS 12:125-129.
47. Gleaves, C. A., T. F. Smith, E. A. Shuster, G. R. Pearson. 1984. Rapid detection of cytomegalovirus in MRC-5 cells inoculated with urine specimens by using low-speed centrifugation and monoclonal antibody to an early antigen. J. Clin. Microbiol. 19:917-919.
48. Gottfried, T. D., J. C. Sturge, H. B. Urnovitz. 1999. A urine test system for HIV-1 antibodies. Am. Clin. Lab. 18:4.
49. Gray, R. H., M. J. Wawer, R. Brookmeyer, N. K. Sewankambo, D. Serwadda, F. Wabwire-Mangen, T. Lutalo, X. Li, T. vanCott, T. C. Quinn. 2001. Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet 357:1149-1153.
50. Guatelli, J. C., K. M. Whitfield, D. Y. Kwoh, K. J. Barringer, D. D. Richman, T. R. Gingeras. 1990. Isothermal, in vitro amplification of nucleic acids by a multienzyme reaction modeled after retroviral replication. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878.
51. Giirtler, L., A. Muhlbacher, U. Michl, H. Hofmann, G. G. Paggi, V. Bossi, R. Thorstensson, R. G. Villaescusa, A. Eiras, J. M. Hernandez, W. Melchior, F. Donie, B. Weber. 1998. Reduction of the diagnostic window with a new combined p24 antigen and human immunodeficiency virus antibody screening assay. J. Virol. Methods 75:27-38.
52. Gutfreund, K. S., M. Williams, R. George, V. G. Bain, M. M. Ma, E. M. Yoshida, J. P. Villeneuve, K. P. Fischer, D. L. Tyrrel. 2000. Genotypic succession of mutations of the hepatitis B virus polymerase associated with lamivudine resistance. J. Hepatol. 33:469-475.
53. Hanna, G. J., V. A. Johnson, D. R. Kuritzkes, D. D. Richman, J. Martinez-Picado, L. Sutton, J. D. Hazelwood, R. T. D'Aquila. 2000. Comparison of sequencing by hybridization and cycle sequencing for genotyping of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:2715-2721.
54. Hayden, F., A. Klimov, M. Tashiro, A. Hay, A. Monto, J. McKimm-Breschkin, C. Macken, A. Hampson, R. G. Webster, M. Amyard, M. Zambon. 2005. Neuraminidase Inhibitor Susceptibility Network position statement: antiviral resistance in influenza A/H5N1 viruses. Antivir. Ther. 10:873-877.
55. Hazelton, P. R., H. R. Gelderblom. 2003. Electron microscopy for rapid diagnosis of infectious agents in emergent situations. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9:294-303.
56. Herrera, G. A., R. Veeramachaneni, E. A. Turbat-Herrera. 2005. Electron microscopy in the diagnosis of BK-polyoma virus infection in the transplanted kidney. Ultrastruct. Pathol. 29:469-474.
57. Hirsch, M. S., F. Brun-Vezinet, B. Clotet, B. Conway, D. R. Kuritzkes, R. T. D'Aquila, L. M. Demeter, S. M. Hammer, V. A. Johnson, C. Loveday, J. W. Mellors, D. M. Jacobsen, D. D. Richman. 2003. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1: 2003 recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA Panel. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37:113-128.
58. Hodinka, R. L. 1999. Serological tests in clinical virology, p. 195-211. In E.H. Lennette and T.F. Smith (ed.), Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections, 3rd ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY.
59. Hodinka, R. L., T. Nagashunmugam, D. Malamud. 1998. Detection of human immunodeficiency virus antibodies in oral fluids. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 5:419-426.
60. Huang, Y. T., B. M. Turchek. 2000. Mink lung cells and mixed mink lung and A549 cells for rapid detection of influenza virus and other respiratory viruses. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:422-423.
61. Hughes, M. D., V. A. Johnson, M. S. Hirsch, J. W. Bremer, T. Elbeik, A. Erice, D. R. Kuritzkes, W. A. Scott, S. A. Spector, N. Basgoz, M. A. Fischl, R. T. D'Aquila for the ACTG 241 Protocol Virology Substudy Team. 1997. Monitoring plasma HIV-1 RNA levels in addition to CD4+ lymphocyte count improves assessment of antiretroviral therapeutic response. Ann. Intern. Med. 126:929-938.
62. Hurt, A. C., R. Alexander, J. Hibbert, N. Deed, I. G. Barr. 2007. Performance of six influenza rapid tests in detecting human influenza in clinical specimens. J. Clin. Virol. 39:132-135.
63. Ison, M. G., L. V. Gubareva, R. L. Atmar, J. Treanor, F. G. Hayden. 2006. Recovery of drug-resistant influenza virus from immunocompromised patients: a case series. J. Infect. Dis. 193:760-764.
64. Itoh, Y., M. Takahashi, M. Fukuda, T. Shibayama, T. Ishikawa, F. Tsuda, T. Tanaka, T. Nishizawa, H. Okamoto. 2000. Visualization of TT virus particles recovered from the sera and feces of infected humans. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 279:718-724.
65. Jacob, S., D. Baudy, E. Jones, L. Xu, A. Mason, F. Regenstein, R. P. Perrillo. 1997. Comparison of quantitative HCV RNA assays in chronic hepatitis C. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 107:362-367.
66. Japour, A. J., D. L. Mayers, V. A. Johnson, D. R. Kuritzkes, L. A. Beckett, J. M. Arduino, J. Lane, R. J. Black, P. S. Reichelderfer, R. T. D'Aquila, C. S. Crum- packer, the RV-43 Study Group, the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Virology Committee Resistance Working Group. 1993. Standardized peripheral blood mononuclear cell culture assay for determination of drug susceptibilities of clinical human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:1095-1101.
67. Jayashree, S., M. K. Bhan, R. Kumar, P. Raj, R. Glass, N. Bhandari. 1988. Serum and salivary antibodies as indicators of rotavirus infection in neonates. J. Infect. Dis. 158:1117-1120.
68. Johnson, G., S. Nelson, M. Petric, R. Tellier. 2000. Comprehensive PCR-based assay for detection and species identification of human herpesviruses. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:3274-3279.
69. Jordens, J. Z., S. Lanham, M. A. Pickett, S. Amarase- kara, I. Abeywickrema, P. J. Watt. 2000. Amplification with molecular beacon primers and reverse line blotting for the detection and typing of human papillomaviruses. J. Virol. Methods 89:29-37.
70. Kageyama, T., S. Kojima, M. Shinohara, K. Uchida, S. Fukushi, F. B. Hoshino, N. Takeda, K. Katayama. 2003. Broadly reactive and highly sensitive assay for Norwalk-like viruses based on real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:1548-1557.
71. Kasahara, Y. 1997. Agglutination immunoassays, p. 7-12. In N.R. Rose, E. Conway de Macario, J. D. Folds, E. C. Lane, M. Nakamura (ed.), Manual of Clinical Laboratory Immunology, 5th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
72. Kaufman, E., I. B. Lamster. 2002. The diagnostic applications of saliva-a review. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 13:197-212.
73. King, S. M., M. Petric, R. Superina, N. Graham, E. A. Roberts. 1990. Cytomegalovirus infections in pediatric liver transplantation. Am. J. Dis. Child. 144:1307-1310.
74. Klimov, A. I., E. Rocha, F. G. Hayden, P. A. Shult, L. F. Roumillat, N. J. Cox. 1995. Prolonged shedding of amantadine-resistant influenza A viruses by immunodefi- cient patients: detection by polymerase chain reaction- restriction analysis. J. Infect. Dis. 172:1352-1355.
75. Klutts, J. S., R. S. Liao, W. M. Dunne, Jr., A. M. Gronowski. 2004. Evaluation of a multiplexed bead assay for assessment of Epstein-Barr virus immunologic status. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:4996-5000.
76. Kostouros, E., K. Siu, E. L. Ford-Jones, M. Petric, R. Tellier. 2003. Molecular characterization of rotavirus strains from children in Toronto, Canada. J. Clin. Virol. 28:77-84.
77. Kramski, M., H. Meisel, B. Klempa, D. H. Kruger, G. Pauli, A. Nitsche. 2007. Detection and typing of human pathogenic hantaviruses by real-time reverse transcription-PCR and pyrosequencing. Clin. Chem. 53: 1899-1905.
78. Lai, Y., K. L. Feldman, R. S. Clark. 2005. Enzyme- linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Crit. Care Med. 33:S433-S434.
79. Landry, M. L., A. M. Caliendo, Y. W. Tang, A. Valsamakis. 2007. Algorithms for detection and identification of viruses, p. 1304-1307. In P.R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. L. Landry, M. A. Pfaller (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
80. Landry, M. L., S. Stanat, K. Biron, D. Brambilla, W. Britt, J. Jokela, S. Chou, W. L. Drew, A. Erice, B. Gilliam, N. Lurain, J. Manischewitz, R. Miner, M. Nokta, P. Reichelderfer, S. Spector, A. Weinberg, B. Yen- Lieberman, C. Crumpacker. 2000. A standardized plaque reduction assay for determination of drug susceptibilities of cytomegalovirus clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:688-692.
81. Laperche, S., N. Le Marrec, A. Girault, F. Bouchardeau, A. Servant-Delmas, M. Maniez-Montreuil, P. Gallian, T. Levayer, P. Morel, N. Simon. 2005. Simultaneous detection of hepatitis C virus (HCV) core antigen and anti-HCV antibodies improves the early detection of HCV infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:3877-3883.
82. Leary, J. J., R. Wittrock, R. T. Sarisky, A. Weinberg, M. J. Levin. 2002. Susceptibilities of herpes simplex viruses to penciclovir and acyclovir in eight cell lines. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46:762-768.
83. Ledue, T. B., D. E. Garfin. 1997. Immunofixation and immunoblotting, p. 54-64. In N.R. Rose, E. Conway de Macario, J. D. Folds, E. C. Lane, R. M. Nakamura (ed.), Manual of Clinical Laboratory Immunology, 5th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
84. Leland, D. S. 1996. Concepts of immunoserological and molecular techniques, p. 21-49. In D.S. Leland (ed.), Clinical Virology. The W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.
85. Lennette, E. T., D. J. Blackbourn, J. A. Levy. 1996. Antibodies to human herpesvirus type 8 in the general population and in Kaposi's sarcoma patients. Lancet 348:858-861.
86. Lennette, E. T., D. A. Lennette. 2000. Immune adherence hemagglutination, p. 140-145. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
87. Levin, M. J., S. Leventhal, H. A. Masters. 1984. Factors influencing quantitative isolation of varicellazoster virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 19:880-883.
88. Limaye, A. P. 2002. Ganciclovir-resistant cytomegalovirus in organ transplant recipients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: 866-872.
89. Livak, K. J., S. J. Flood, J. Marmaro, W. Giusti, K. Deetz. 1995. Oligonucleotides with fluorescent dyes at opposite ends provide a quenched probe system useful for detecting PCR product and nucleic acid hybridization. PCR Methods Appl. 4:357-362.
90. Longo, M. C., M. S. Berninger, J. L. Hartley. 1990. Use of uracil DNA glycosylase to control carry-over contamination in polymerase chain reactions. Gene 93:125128.
91. Mahony, J., S. Chong, F. Merante, S. Yaghoubian, T. Sinha, C. Lisle, R. Janeczko. 2007. Development of a respiratory virus panel test for detection of twenty human respiratory viruses by use of multiplex PCR and a fluid microbead-based assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45: 2965-2970.
92. Mahony, J. B., M. A. Chernesky. 1999. Immunoassays for the diagnosis of infectious diseases, p. 202-214. In P.R. Murray, E. J. Baron, M. A. Pfaller, F. C. Tenover, R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 7th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
93. Mandy, F. F., T. Nakamura, M. Bergeron, K. Sekiguchi. 2001. Overview and application of suspension array technology. Clin. Lab. Med. 21:713-729.
94. Marshall, J. A., L. D. Bruggink. 2006. Laboratory diagnosis of norovirus. Clin. Lab. 52:571-581.
95. Martin, M., C. Gilbert, E. Covington, G. Boivin. 2006. Characterization of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) UL97 mutations found in a valganciclovir/ oral ganciclovir prophylactic trial by use of a bacterial artificial chromosome containing the HCMV genome. J. Infect. Dis. 194:579-583.
96. Martinez, P. M., A. R. Torres, R. Ortiz de Lejarazu, A. Montoya, J. F. Martin, J. M. Eiros. 1999. Human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing by enzyme-linked fluorescent and Western blot assays using serum, gingival-crevicular transudate, urine samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:1100-1106.
97. Martins, T. B. 2002. Development of internal controls for the Luminex instrument as part of a multiplex seven- analyte viral respiratory antibody profile. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9:41-45.
98. McKimm-Breschkin, J. L. 2000. Resistance of influenza viruses to neuraminidase inhibitors-a review. Antivir. Res. 47:1-17.
99. McLaren, C., M. N. Ellis, G. A. Hunter. 1983. A colorimetric assay for the measurement of the sensitivity of herpes simplex viruses to antiviral agents. Antivir. Res. 3:223-234.
100. McSharry, J. M., N. S. Lurain, G. L. Drusano, A. Lan- day, J. Manischewitz, M. Nokta, M. O'Gorman, H. M. Shapiro, A. Weinberg, P. Reichelderfer, C. Crumpacker. 1998. Flow cytometric determination of ganciclovir susceptibilities of human cytomegalovirus clinical isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:958-964.
101. Morris, T., B. Robertson, M. Gallagher. 1996. Rapid reverse transcription-PCR detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in serum by using the TaqMan fluorogenic detection system. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:2933-2936.
102. Mushahwar, I. K., T. A. Brawner. 2000. Radioimmunoassay, p. 79-92. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
103. NCCLS. 2004. Antiviral susceptibility testing: herpes simplex virus by plaque reduction assay. Standard M33- A. NCCLS, Wayne, PA.
104. Nichol, S. T., C. F. Spiropoulou, S. Morzunov, P. E. Rollin, T. G. Ksiazek, H. Feldmann, A. Sanchez, J. Childs, S. Zaki, C. J. Peters. 1993. Genetic identification of a hantavirus associated with an outbreak of acute respiratory illness. Science 262:914-917.
105. Oberste, M. S., K. Maher, D. R. Kilpatrick, M. R. Flemister, B. A. Brown, M. A. Pallansch. 1999. Typing of human enteroviruses by partial sequencing of VP1. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:1288-1293.
106. Olivo, P. D. 1996. Transgenic cell lines for detection of animal viruses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9:321-334.
107. Otsu, R., A. Ishikawa, K. Mukae. 2000. Detection of small round structured viruses in stool specimens from outbreaks of gastroenteritis by electron microscopy and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Acta Virol. 44:53-55.
108. Parker, S. P., W. D. Cubitt, A. E. Ades. 1997. A method for the detection and confirmation of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in dried blood spots. J. Virol. Methods 68:199-205.
109. Pasloske, B. L., C. R. Walkerpeach, R. D. Ober- moeller, M. Winkler, D. B. DuBois. 1998. Armored RNA technology for production of ribonuclease-resistant viral RNA controls and standards. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:3590-3594.
110. Peterson, E., O. W. Schmidt, L. C. Goldstein, R. C. Nowinski, L. Corey. 1983. Typing of clinical herpes simplex virus isolates with mouse monoclonal antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2: comparison with type-specific rabbit antisera and restriction endonuclease analysis of viral DNA. J. Clin. Microbiol. 17:92-96.
111. Petropoulos, C. J., N. T. Parkin, K. L. Limoli, Y. S. Lie, T. Wrin, W. Huang, H. Tian, D. Smith, G. A. Winslow, D. J. Capon, J. M. Whitcomb. 2000. A novel phenotypic drug susceptibility assay for human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Antimicrob. Agents Chemo- ther. 44:920-928.
112. Potier, M., L. Mameli, M. Belisle, L. Dallaire, S. B. Melancon. 1979. Fluorometric assay of neuraminidase with a sodium (4-methylumbelliferyl-alpha-O-N- acetylneuraminate) substrate. Anal. Biochem. 94:287296.
113. Pugliese, A., T. Beltramo, D. Torre. 2007. Emerging and re-emerging viral infections in Europe. Cell Biochem. Funct. 25:1-13.
114. Randhawa, P., A. Vats, R. Shapiro. 2005. Monitoring for polyomavirus BK and JC in urine: comparison of quantitative polymerase chain reaction with urine cytology. Transplantation 79:984-986.
115. Rawlins, M. L., E. M. Swenson, H. R. Hill, C. M. Litwin. 2007. Evaluation of an enzyme immunoassay for detection of immunoglobulin M antibodies to West Nile virus and the importance of background subtraction in detecting nonspecific reactivity. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 14:665-668.
116. Revets, H., D. Marissens, S. de Wit, P. Lacor, N. Clu- meck, S. Lauwers, G. Zissis. 1996. Comparative evaluation of NASBA HIV-1 RNA QT, AMPLICOR- HIV Monitor, QUANTIPLEX HIV RNA assay, three methods for quantification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA in plasma. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34: 1058-1064.
117. Rotbart, H. A. 1991. Nucleic acid detection systems for enteroviruses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 4: 156-168.
118. Saiki, R. K., S. Scharf, F. Faloona, K. B. Mullis, G. T. Horn, H. A. Erlich, N. Arnheim. 1992. Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. 1985. Biotechnology 24:476-480.
119. Sarantis, H., G. Johnson, M. Brown, M. Petric, R. Tellier. 2004. Comprehensive detection and serotyping of human adenoviruses by PCR and sequencing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:3963-3969.
120. Sarkies, N., Z. Gregor, T. Forsey, S. Darougar. 1986. Antibodies to herpes simplex virus type I in intraocular fluids of patients with acute retinal necrosis. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 70:81-84.
121. Schmit, I., G. Boivin. 1999. Characterization of the DNA polymerase and thymidine kinase genes of herpes simplex virus isolates from AIDS patients in whom acyclovir and foscarnet therapy sequentially failed. J. Infect. Dis. 180:487-490.
122. Schutzbank, T. A., R. McGuire. 2000. Immunofluorescence, p. 69-78. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
123. Shafer, R. W. 2002. Genotypic testing for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 drug resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15:247-277.
124. Small, L. N., J. Lau, D. R. Snydman. 2006. Preventing post-organ transplantation cytomegalovirus disease with ganciclovir: a meta-analysis comparing prophylactic and preemptive therapies. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43: 869-880.
125. Stabell, E. C., P. D. Olivo. 1992. Isolation of a cell line for rapid and sensitive histochemical assay for the detection of herpes simplex virus. J. Virol. Methods 38: 195-204.
126. Stark, L. M., A. L. Lewis. 2000. Complement fixation test, p. 112-126. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
127. Storch, G. A. 2000. Diagnostic virology. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31:739-751.
128. Storch, G. A. (ed.). 2000. Essentials of Diagnostic Virology. Churchill Livingstone, New York, NY.
129. Suttorp-Schulten, M. S., M. J. Zaal, L. Luyendijk, P. J. Bos, A. Kijlstra, A. Rothova. 1989. Aqueous chamber tap and serology in acute retinal necrosis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 108:327-328.
130. Tebas, P., E. C. Stabell, P. D. Olivo. 1995. Antiviral susceptibility testing with a cell line which expresses beta-galactosidase after infection with herpes simplex virus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1287-1291.
131. Theilmann, L., M. Fischer, P. R. Galle, M. Nassal. 1989. Detection of HBV DNA in HBsAg-positive sera after amplification using the polymerase chain reaction. Liver 9:322-328.
132. Thomas, D. L., J. Astemborski, R. M. Rai, F. A. An- ania, M. Schaeffer, N. Galai, K. Nolt, K. E. Nelson, S. A. Strathdee, L. Johnson, O. Laeyendecker, J. Boit- nott, L. E. Wilson, D. Vlahov. 2000. The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, environmental factors. JAMA 284:450-456.
133. Tsongalis, G. J., T. Gleeson, M. Rodina, D. Anamani, J. Ross, I. Joanisse, L. Tanimoto, R. Ziermann. 2005. Comparative performance evaluation of the HIV- 1 LiPA protease and reverse transcriptase resistance assay on clinical isolates. J. Clin. Virol. 34:268-271.
134. Urdea, M. S. 1993. Synthesis and characterization of branched DNA (bDNA) for the direct and quantitative detection of CMV, HBV, HCV, HIV. Clin. Chem. 39:725-726.
135. van den Hoogen, B. G., J. C. de Jong, J. Groen, T. Kuiken, R. de Groot, R. A. Fouchier, A. D. Osterhaus. 2001. A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat. Med. 7:719-724.
136. von Lode, P. 2005. Point-of-care immunotesting: approaching the analytical performance of central laboratory methods. Clin. Biochem. 38:591-606.
137. Walker, G. T., J. G. Nadeau, P. A. Spears, J. L. Schram, C. M. Nycz, D. D. Shank. 1994. Multiplex strand displacement amplification (SDA) and detection of DNA sequences from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. Nucleic Acids Res. 22:2670-2677.
138. Wang, D., L. Coscoy, M. Zylberberg, P. C. Avila, H. A. Boushey, D. Ganem, J. L. DeRisi. 2002. Microarray-based detection and genotyping of viral pathogens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:15687-15692.
139. Wang, D., A. Urisman, Y. T. Liu, M. Springer, T. G. Ksiazek, D. D. Erdman, E. R. Mardis, M. Hickenbotham, V. Magrini, J. Eldred, J. P. Latreille, R. K. Wilson, D. Ganem, J. L. DeRisi. 2003. Viral discovery and sequence recovery using DNA microarrays. PLoS Biol. 1:E2.
140. Warford, A. 2000. Quality assurance in clinical virology, p. 3-10. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
141. Wiedbrauk, D. L. 2000. Nucleic acid amplification methods, p. 188-197. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
142. Wiedbrauk, D. L., H. Y. K. Chuang. 1988. Managing IgM serologies: getting the IgG out. Lab. Manag. 26:24-27.
143. Wiedmann, M., W. J. Wilson, J. Czajka, J. Luo, F. Barany, C. A. Batt. 1994. Ligase chain reaction (LCR)-overview and applications. PCR Methods Appl. 3:S51-S64.
144. Wittek, M., M. Sturmer, H. W. Doerr, A. Berger. 2007. Molecular assays for monitoring HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 7: 237-246.
145. Wittwer, C. T., M. G. Herrmann, A. A. Moss, R. P. Rasmussen. 1997. Continuous fluorescence monitoring of rapid cycle DNA amplification. BioTechniques 22:130-131, 134-138.
146. Wong, S. J., R. H. Boyle, V. L. Demarest, A. N. Woodmansee, L. D. Kramer, H. Li, M. Drebot, R. A. Koski, E. Fikrig, D. A. Martin, P. Y. Shi. 2003. Immunoassay targeting nonstructural protein 5 to differentiate West Nile virus infection from dengue and St. Louis encephalitis virus infections and from flavivirus vaccination. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:4217-4223.
147. Yamaguchi, K., Y. Yonemura, H. Okabe, Y. Takahama, S. Nagai, H. Yamaguchi, K. Hirai. 2003. Detection of anti-human T-lymphotropic virus type I antibody in whole blood by a novel counting immunoassay. Clin. Chem. 49:275-280.
148. Young, S. A., L. C. McLaren. 2000. Hemagglutination inhibition and hemadsorption, p. 135-139. In S.C. Specter, R. L. Hodinka, S. A. Young (ed.), Clinical Virology Manual, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
149. Zolopa, A. R. drug-resistance measurements into the clinical management of HIV-1 infection. J. Infect. Dis. 194(Suppl. 1):S59-S64.