Anal Neoplasms

Surgical Clinics of North America

Volumn 90, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 147-161

  Garrett, Kelly ^a   Kalady, Matthew F ^a,b  

^a Digestive Disease Institute   (United States)

^b Department of Cancer Biology ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Anal canal; Anal cancer; Anal margin; Carcinoma in situ; Epidermoid cancer; Squamous cell carcinoma

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; CAPECITABINE; CETUXIMAB; CISPLATIN; ETOPOSIDE; FLUOROURACIL; IMATINIB; IMIQUIMOD; INTERFERON; MITOMYCIN; MITOMYCIN C; OXALIPLATIN; PODOPHYLLIN;

ANUS CANCER; ANUS INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA; ANUS TUMOR; BASAL CELL CARCINOMA; CANCER CLASSIFICATION; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER SURGERY; CARCINOGENESIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLON ADENOCARCINOMA; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; CYTOLOGY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DISEASE COURSE; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DOSE SEQUENCE; EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY; GASTROINTESTINAL STROMAL TUMOR; HUMAN; KAPOSI SARCOMA; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; MELANOMA; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECTUM ABDOMINOPERINEAL RESECTION; RECTUM CANCER; REPEATED DRUG DOSE; REVIEW; SALVAGE THERAPY; SARCOMA; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TREATMENT INDICATION; VERRUCOUS CARCINOMA;

ANUS NEOPLASMS; CARCINOMA IN SITU; CARCINOMA, SQUAMOUS CELL; CARCINOMA, VERRUCOUS; HUMANS; INTESTINAL MUCOSA; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; PROGNOSIS; RECTAL NEOPLASMS;

EID: 73249126828     PISSN: 00396109     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.suc.2009.09.008     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. U.S. National Institutes of Health. Available at:. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/anal Accessed July 13, 2009
2. Welton M.L., Sharkey F.E., and Kahlenberg M.S. The etiology and epidemiology of anal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 13 (2004) 263-275
3. Welton M.L., and Varma M.G. Anal cancer. In: Wolff B.G., Fleshman J.W., Beck D.E., et al. (Eds). The ASCRS textbook of colon and rectal surgery (2007), Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, New York 482-500
4. Bullard Dunn K., and Rothenberger D. Colon, rectum and anus. In: Brunicardi C. (Ed). Schwartz's principles of surgery (2008), McGraw Hill, New York
5. Werness B.A., Levine A.J., and Howley P.M. Association of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 E6 proteins with p53. Science 248 (1990) 76-79
6. zur Hausen H. Immortalization of human cells and their malignant conversion by high risk human papillomavirus genotypes. Semin Cancer Biol 9 (1999) 405-411
7. Martin F., and Bower M. Anal intraepithelial neoplasia in HIV positive people. Sex Transm Infect 77 (2001) 327-331
8. Critchlow C.W., Surawicz C.M., Holmes K.K., et al. Prospective study of high grade anal squamous intraepithelial neoplasia in a cohort of homosexual men: influence of HIV infection, immunosuppression and human papillomavirus infection. AIDS 9 (1995) 1255-1262
9. Palefsky J.M., Holly E.A., Ralston M.L., et al. Anal squamous intraepithelial lesions in HIV-positive and HIV-negative homosexual and bisexual men: prevalence and risk factors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 17 (1998) 320-326
10. Palefsky J.M., Holly E.A., Ralston M.L., et al. High incidence of anal high-grade squamous intra-epithelial lesions among HIV-positive and HIV-negative homosexual and bisexual men. AIDS 12 (1998) 495-503
11. Palefsky J.M., Shiboski S., and Moss A. Risk factors for anal human papillomavirus infection and anal cytologic abnormalities in HIV-positive and HIV-negative homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 7 (1994) 599-606
12. Holmes F., Borek D., Owen-Kummer M., et al. Anal cancer in women. Gastroenterology 95 (1988) 107-111
13. Caussy D., Goedert J.J., Palefsky J., et al. Interaction of human immunodeficiency and papilloma viruses: association with anal epithelial abnormality in homosexual men. Int J Cancer 46 (1990) 214-219
14. Friedman H.B., Saah A.J., Sherman M.E., et al. Human papillomavirus, anal squamous intraepithelial lesions, and human immunodeficiency virus in a cohort of gay men. J Infect Dis 178 (1998) 45-52
15. Ogunbiyi O.A., Scholefield J.H., Raftery A.T., et al. Prevalence of anal human papillomavirus infection and intraepithelial neoplasia in renal allograft recipients. Br J Surg 81 (1994) 365-367
16. Daling J.R., Sherman K.J., Hislop T.G., et al. Cigarette smoking and the risk of anogenital cancer. Am J Epidemiol 135 (1992) 180-189
17. Palefsky J.M., and Rubin M. The epidemiology of anal human papillomavirus and related neoplasia. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 36 (2009) 187-200
18. Chang G.J., Berry J.M., Jay N., et al. Surgical treatment of high-grade anal squamous intraepithelial lesions: a prospective study. Dis Colon Rectum 45 (2002) 453-458
19. Berry J.M., Palefsky J.M., Jay N., et al. Performance characteristics of anal cytology and human papillomavirus testing in patients with high-resolution anoscopy-guided biopsy of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Dis Colon Rectum 52 (2009) 239-247
20. Chin-Hong P.V., Berry J.M., Cheng S.C., et al. Comparison of patient- and clinician-collected anal cytology samples to screen for human papillomavirus-associated anal intraepithelial neoplasia in men who have sex with men. Ann Intern Med 149 (2008) 300-306
21. Palefsky J.M., Holly E.A., Hogeboom C.J., et al. Virologic, immunologic, and clinical parameters in the incidence and progression of anal squamous intraepithelial lesions in HIV-positive and HIV-negative homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 17 (1998) 314-319
22. Devaraj B., and Cosman B.C. Expectant management of anal squamous dysplasia in patients with HIV. Dis Colon Rectum 49 (2006) 36-40
23. Watson A.J., Smith B.B., Whitehead M.R., et al. Malignant progression of anal intra-epithelial neoplasia. ANZ J Surg 76 (2006) 715-717
24. Scholefield J.H., Castle M.T., and Watson N.F. Malignant transformation of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Br J Surg 92 (2005) 1133-1136
25. Graham B.D., Jetmore A.B., Foote J.E., et al. Topical 5-fluorouracil in the management of extensive anal Bowen's disease: a preferred approach. Dis Colon Rectum 48 (2005) 444-450
26. Rosen T., Harting M., and Gibson M. Treatment of Bowen's disease with topical 5% imiquimod cream: retrospective study. Dermatol Surg 33 (2007) 427-431 [discussion: 431-2]
27. Holt P.J. Cryotherapy for skin cancer: results over a 5-year period using liquid nitrogen spray cryosurgery. Br J Dermatol 119 (1988) 231-240
28. Runfola M.A., Weber T.K., Rodriguez-Bigas M.A., et al. Photodynamic therapy for residual neoplasms of the perianal skin. Dis Colon Rectum 43 (2000) 499-502
29. Petrelli N.J., Cebollero J.A., Rodriguez-Bigas M., et al. Photodynamic therapy in the management of neoplasms of the perianal skin. Arch Surg 127 (1992) 1436-1438
30. Strauss R.J., and Fazio V.W. Bowen's disease of the anal and perianal area. A report and analysis of twelve cases. Am J Surg 137 (1979) 231-234
31. Margenthaler J.A., Dietz D.W., Mutch M.G., et al. Outcomes, risk of other malignancies, and need for formal mapping procedures in patients with perianal Bowen's disease. Dis Colon Rectum 47 (2004) 1655-1660 [discussion: 1660-1]
32. Goldstone S.E., Kawalek A.Z., and Huyett J.W. Infrared coagulator: a useful tool for treating anal squamous intraepithelial lesions. Dis Colon Rectum 48 (2005) 1042-1054
33. Fleshner P.R., Chalasani S., Chang G.J., et al. Practice parameters for anal squamous neoplasms. Dis Colon Rectum 51 (2008) 2-9
34. Jensen S.L., Hagen K., Harling H., et al. Long-term prognosis after radical treatment for squamous-cell carcinoma of the anal canal and anal margin. Dis Colon Rectum 31 (1988) 273-278
35. Skibber J., Rodriguez-Bigas M.A., and Gordon P.H. Surgical considerations in anal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 13 (2004) 321-338
36. Gordon P.H. Current status-perianal and anal canal neoplasms. Dis Colon Rectum 33 (1990) 799-808
37. Papillon J., and Chassard J.L. Respective roles of radiotherapy and surgery in the management of epidermoid carcinoma of the anal margin. Series of 57 patients. Dis Colon Rectum 35 (1992) 422-429
38. Moore H.G., and Guillem J.G. Anal neoplasms. Surg Clin North Am 82 (2002) 1233-1251
39. Greenall M.J., Quan S.H., Stearns M.W., et al. Epidermoid cancer of the anal margin. Pathologic features, treatment, and clinical results. Am J Surg 149 (1985) 95-101
40. Klas J.V., Rothenberger D.A., Wong W.D., et al. Malignant tumors of the anal canal: the spectrum of disease, treatment, and outcomes. Cancer 85 (1999) 1686-1693
41. Ryan D.P., Compton C.C., and Mayer R.J. Carcinoma of the anal canal. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 792-800
42. Giovannini M., Bardou V.J., Barclay R., et al. Anal carcinoma: prognostic value of endorectal ultrasound (ERUS). Results of a prospective multicenter study. Endoscopy 33 (2001) 231-236
43. Trautmann T.G., and Zuger J.H. Positron emission tomography for pretreatment staging and posttreatment evaluation in cancer of the anal canal. Mol Imaging Biol 7 (2005) 309-313
44. Buroker T.R., Nigro N., Bradley G., et al. Combined therapy for cancer of the anal canal: a follow-up report. Dis Colon Rectum 20 (1977) 677-678
45. Nigro N.D., Vaitkevicius V.K., Buroker T., et al. Combined therapy for cancer of the anal canal. Dis Colon Rectum 24 (1981) 73-75
46. Ajani J.A., Winter K.A., Gunderson L.L., et al. Fluorouracil, mitomycin, and radiotherapy vs fluorouracil, cisplatin, and radiotherapy for carcinoma of the anal canal: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299 (2008) 1914-1921
47. Czito B.G., and Willett C.G. Current management of anal canal cancer. Curr Oncol Rep 11 (2009) 186-192
48. Papaconstantinou H.T., Bullard K.M., Rothenberger D.A., et al. Salvage abdominoperineal resection after failed Nigro protocol: modest success, major morbidity. Colorectal Dis 8 (2006) 124-129
49. Nielsen O.V., and Jensen S.L. Basal cell carcinoma of the anus-a clinical study of 34 cases. Br J Surg 68 (1981) 856-857
50. Paterson C.A., Young-Fadok T.M., and Dozois R.R. Basal cell carcinoma of the perianal region: 20-year experience. Dis Colon Rectum 42 (1999) 1200-1202
51. Moore W.D. Recurrent melanosis of the rectum after previous removal from the verge of the anus in a man aged 65. Lancet 1 (1857) 290-294
52. Longo W.E., Vernava III A.M., Wade T.P., et al. Rare anal canal cancers in the U.S. veteran: patterns of disease and results of treatment. Am Surg 61 (1995) 495-500
53. Iversen K., and Robins R.E. Mucosal malignant melanomas. Am J Surg 139 (1980) 660-664
54. Wanebo H.J., Woodruff J.M., Farr G.H., et al. Anorectal melanoma. Cancer 47 (1981) 1891-1900
55. Ishizone S., Koide N., Karasawa F., et al. Surgical treatment for anorectal malignant melanoma: report of five cases and review of 79 Japanese cases. Int J Colorectal Dis 23 (2008) 1257-1262
56. Yeh J.J., Shia J., Hwu W.J., et al. The role of abdominoperineal resection as surgical therapy for anorectal melanoma. Ann Surg 244 (2006) 1012-1017
57. Beck D.E., and Fazio V.W. Perianal Paget's disease. Dis Colon Rectum 30 (1987) 263-266
58. Armitage N.C., Jass J.R., Richman P.I., et al. Paget's disease of the anus: a clinicopathological study. Br J Surg 76 (1989) 60-63
59. Sarmiento J.M., Wolff B.G., Burgart L.J., et al. Paget's disease of the perianal region-an aggressive disease?. Dis Colon Rectum 40 (1997) 1187-1194
60. Tulchinsky H., Zmora O., Brazowski E., et al. Extramammary Paget's disease of the perianal region. Colorectal Dis 6 (2004) 206-209
61. Burrows N.P., Jones D.H., Hudson P.M., et al. Treatment of extramammary Paget's disease by radiotherapy. Br J Dermatol 132 (1995) 970-972
62. Shieh S., Dee A.S., Cheney R.T., et al. Photodynamic therapy for the treatment of extramammary Paget's disease. Br J Dermatol 146 (2002) 1000-1005
63. Moreno-Arias G.A., Conill C., Castells-Mas A., et al. Radiotherapy for genital extramammary Paget's disease in situ. Dermatol Surg 27 (2001) 587-590
64. Brierley J.D., and Stockdale A.D. Radiotherapy: an effective treatment for extramammary Paget's disease. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 3 (1991) 3-5
65. Zampogna J.C., Flowers F.P., Roth W.I., et al. Treatment of primary limited cutaneous extramammary Paget's disease with topical imiquimod monotherapy: two case reports. J Am Acad Dermatol 47 (2002) S229-S235
66. Panasiti V., Bottoni U., Devirgiliis V., et al. Intralesional interferon alfa-2b as neoadjuvant treatment for perianal extramammary Paget's disease. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 22 (2008) 522-523
67. Shutze W.P., and Gleysteen J.J. Perianal Paget's disease. Classification and review of management: report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum 33 (1990) 502-507
68. McCarter M.D., Quan S.H., Busam K., et al. Long-term outcome of perianal Paget's disease. Dis Colon Rectum 46 (2003) 612-616
69. Collaboration. Histologic typing of intestinal tumors. In: Jass JR, Sobin LH, editors. World Health Organization international histological classification of tumors. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1989. p. 42.
70. Jensen S.L., Shokouh-Amiri M.H., Hagen K., et al. Adenocarcinoma of the anal ducts. A series of 21 cases. Dis Colon Rectum 31 (1988) 268-272
71. Abel M.E., Chiu Y.S., Russell T.R., et al. Adenocarcinoma of the anal glands. Results of a survey. Dis Colon Rectum 36 (1993) 383-387
72. Lee J., and Corman M. Recurrence of anal adenocarcinoma after local excision and adjuvant chemoradiation therapy: report of a case and review of the literature. J Gastrointest Surg 13 (2009) 150-154
73. Li L.R., Wan D.S., Pan Z.Z., et al. Clinical features and treatment of 49 patients with anal canal adenocarcinoma. Zhonghua Wei Chang Wai Ke Za Zhi 9 (2006) 402-404
74. Papagikos M., Crane C.H., Skibber J., et al. Chemoradiation for adenocarcinoma of the anus. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 55 (2003) 669-678
75. Beal K.P., Wong D., Guillem J.G., et al. Primary adenocarcinoma of the anus treated with combined modality therapy. Dis Colon Rectum 46 (2003) 1320-1324
76. Trombetta L.J., and Place R.J. Giant condyloma acuminatum of the anorectum: trends in epidemiology and management: report of a case and review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum 44 (2001) 1878-1886
77. Gingrass P.J., Bubrick M.P., Hitchcock C.R., et al. Anorectal verrucose squamous carcinoma: report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum 21 (1978) 120-122
78. De Toma G., Cavallaro G., Bitonti A., et al. Surgical management of perianal giant condyloma acuminatum (Buschke-Lowenstein tumor). Report of three cases. Eur Surg Res 38 (2006) 418-422
79. Nigri G.R., Dente M., Valabrega S., et al. Gastrointestinal stromal tumor of the anal canal: an unusual presentation. World J Surg Oncol 5 (2007) 20
80. Khansur T.K., Routh A., Mihas T.A., et al. Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion and diplopia: oat cell (small cell) rectal carcinoma metastatic to the central nervous system. Am J Gastroenterol 90 (1995) 1173-1174
81. Bernick P.E., Klimstra D.S., Shia J., et al. Neuroendocrine carcinomas of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum 47 (2004) 163-169
82. Molnar L., Bezsnyak I., Daubner K., et al. Anorectal sarcomas. Acta Chir Hung 26 (1985) 85-91
83. Bailey H.R., Huval W.V., Max E., et al. Local excision of carcinoma of the rectum for cure. Surgery 111 (1992) 555-561
84. Frost D.B., Wong R., and Rao A. A retrospective comparison of transanal surgery and endocavitary radiation for the treatment of 'early' rectal adenocarcinoma. Arch Surg 128 (1993) 1028-1032
85. Willett C.G., Compton C.C., Shellito P.C., et al. Selection factors for local excision or abdominoperineal resection of early stage rectal cancer. Cancer 73 (1994) 2716-2720
86. Bleday R., Breen E., Jessup J.M., et al. Prospective evaluation of local excision for small rectal cancers. Dis Colon Rectum 40 (1997) 388-392
87. Dias A.R., Nahas C.S., Marques C.F., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery: indications, results and controversies. Tech Coloproctol 13 (2009) 105-111
88. Demartines N., von Flue M.O., and Harder F.H. Transanal endoscopic microsurgical excision of rectal tumors: indications and results. World J Surg 25 (2001) 870-875
89. Palma P., Freudenberg S., Samel S., et al. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery: indications and results after 100 cases. Colorectal Dis 6 (2004) 350-355
90. Blumberg D., Paty P.B., Guillem J.G., et al. All patients with small intramural rectal cancers are at risk for lymph node metastasis. Dis Colon Rectum 42 (1999) 881-885
91. Brodsky J.T., Richard G.K., Cohen A.M., et al. Variables correlated with the risk of lymph node metastasis in early rectal cancer. Cancer 69 (1992) 322-326
92. Mellgren A., Sirivongs P., Rothenberger D.A., et al. Is local excision adequate therapy for early rectal cancer?. Dis Colon Rectum 43 (2000) 1064-1071 [discussion: 1071-4]
93. Garcia-Aguilar J., Mellgren A., Sirivongs P., et al. Local excision of rectal cancer without adjuvant therapy: a word of caution. Ann Surg 231 (2000) 345-351
94. Taylor R.H., Hay J.H., and Larsson S.N. Transanal local excision of selected low rectal cancers. Am J Surg 175 (1998) 360-363
95. Varma M.G., Rogers S.J., Schrock T.R., et al. Local excision of rectal carcinoma. Arch Surg 134 (1999) 863-867 [discussion: 867-8]
96. Sengupta S., and Tjandra J.J. Local excision of rectal cancer: what is the evidence?. Dis Colon Rectum 44 (2001) 1345-1361
97. Chorost M.I., Petrelli N.J., McKenna M., et al. Local excision of rectal carcinoma. Am Surg 67 (2001) 774-779
98. Nascimbeni R., Burgart L.J., Nivatvongs S., et al. Risk of lymph node metastasis in T1 carcinoma of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum 45 (2002) 200-206
99. Rothenberger D.A., and Garcia-Aguilar J. Role of local excision in the treatment of rectal cancer. Semin Surg Oncol 19 (2000) 367-375
100. You Y.N., Baxter N.N., Stewart A., et al. Is the increasing rate of local excision for stage I rectal cancer in the United States justified?: a nationwide cohort study from the National Cancer Database. Ann Surg 245 (2007) 726-733
101. Madbouly K.M., Remzi F.H., Erkek B.A., et al. Recurrence after transanal excision of T1 rectal cancer: should we be concerned?. Dis Colon Rectum 48 (2005) 711-719 [discussion: 719-21]
102. Stipa F., Burza A., Lucandri G., et al. Outcomes for early rectal cancer managed with transanal endoscopic microsurgery: a 5-year follow-up study. Surg Endosc 20 (2006) 541-545
103. Maslekar S., Pillinger S.H., and Monson J.R. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery for carcinoma of the rectum. Surg Endosc 21 (2007) 97-102
104. Borschitz T., Heintz A., and Junginger T. Transanal endoscopic microsurgical excision of pT2 rectal cancer: results and possible indications. Dis Colon Rectum 50 (2007) 292-301
105. Weiser M.R., Landmann R.G., Wong W.D., et al. Surgical salvage of recurrent rectal cancer after transanal excision. Dis Colon Rectum 48 (2005) 1169-1175