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Volumn 56, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 1041-1093

Gun control after Heller: Threats and sideshows from a social welfare perspective

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EID: 72749086714     PISSN: 00415650     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (35)

References (332)
  • 1
    • 78650573844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008)
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008).
  • 2
    • 78650561367 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Part ILA (discussing readings of Heller's holding)
    • See infra Part ILA (discussing readings of Heller's holding).
  • 3
    • 78650579958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Shrunken majority now favors stricter gun laws
    • Oct. 11
    • See Lydia Saad, Shrunken Majority Now Favors Stricter Gun Laws, GALLUP NEWS SERV., Oct. 11, 2007, available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/101731/ Shrunken-Majority-Now-Favors-Stricter-Gun-Laws.aspx.
    • (2007) Gallup News Serv.
    • Saad, L.1
  • 4
    • 72749122817 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783
    • See Brief for Amici Curiae 55 Members of United States Senate, the President of the United States Senate, and 250 Members of United States House of Representatives in Support of Respondent, at app. 1a-10a, District of Columbia v. Heller, 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008) (No. 07-290) [hereinafter Brief for Amici Curiae]. Given their opposition to the District's regulation, one might ask why these legislators did not prefer to legislate. For a partial answer to this question, see infra note 250.
    • (2008) District of Columbia V. Heller
  • 5
    • 78650566236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • June 26
    • Although neither major party candidate for president took issue with Heller's outcome after the fact, see 2008central.net, McCain and Obama Statements on DC v. Heller, June 26, 2008, http://2008central.net/2008/06/26/ mccain-and-obama-statements-on-dc-v-heller, it is worth noting that John McCain signed the aforementioned amicus brief while Barack Obama did not.
    • (2008) McCain and Obama Statements on DC V. Heller
  • 6
    • 78650553160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Brief for Amici Curiae, supra note. 4, at app. 1a-3a
    • See Brief for Amici Curiae, supra note. 4, at app. 1a-3a.
  • 7
    • 78650581092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra notes 138-141 (collecting examples of litigation in Heller's wake)
    • See infra notes 138-141 (collecting examples of litigation in Heller's wake).
  • 8
    • 0002749187 scopus 로고
    • Rights as trumps
    • 153, 158, 165-66 Jeremy Waldron ed.
    • See, e.g., Ronald Dworkin, Rights as Trumps, in THEORIES OF RIGHTS 153, 153, 158, 165-66 (Jeremy Waldron ed., 1984).
    • (1984) Theories of Rights , pp. 153
    • Dworkin, R.1
  • 9
    • 72749122817 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783, 2817 & n.26
    • District of Columbia v. Heller, 128 S. Ct. 2783, 2817 & n.26 (2008); see infra text accompanying note 130.
    • (2008) District of Columbia V. Heller
  • 10
    • 43049126553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The self-defensive cognition of self-defense
    • 18-19
    • This Article relies on many empirical studies. They will be unfamiliar to most lawyers, and some readers might wish to minimize the studies' value for constitutional decisionmaking. Indeed, the facial plausibility of the data might be influenced by the reader's feelings about gun control. See, e.g., Dan M. Kahan &. Donald Braman, The Self-Defensive Cognition of Self-Defense, 45 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 1, 18-19 (2008). But for our purposes, these empirical studies are essential. We have made best efforts to accurately recount the findings therein and to draw only logically supportable conclusions therefrom. The data will not, however, perfectly measure the psychological or emotional impact of gun rights and gun ownership. The happiness, satisfaction, fear, and distress arising from the prevalence of guns in America are difficult to measure precisely. Note also that judicial understandings of constitutional rights can influence the rendering of ordinary law. Statutory interpretation may be influenced by constitutional doubt, and Heller might instigate new constitutional doubt when courts interpret statutes. We set aside the difficult project of predicting and estimating these effects after Heller.
    • (2008) Am. Crim. L. Rev. , vol.45 , pp. 1
    • Kahan, D.M.1    Braman, D.2
  • 11
    • 30644477618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The social costs of gun ownership
    • This Part draws on material from Philip J. Cook & Jens Ludwig, The Social Costs of Gun Ownership, 90 J. PUB. ECON. 379 (2006).
    • (2006) J. Pub. Econ. , vol.90 , pp. 379
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2
  • 12
    • 0004015782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This estimate is based on two sources: federal tax records on sales and a survey. First, the number of new guns added each year is taken from tax data kept by the federal government on manufactures, imports, and exports. The annual count of net additions can be cumulated over, for example, the last century, with some assumption about the rate of removal through such mechanisms as off-the-books exports, breakage, and police confiscation. See GARY KLECK, TARGETING GUNS: FIREARMS AND THEIR CONTROL 63-64 (1997);
    • (1997) Targeting Guns: Firearms and their Control , pp. 63-64
    • Kleck, G.1
  • 13
    • 0002099638 scopus 로고
    • The technology of personal violence
    • 37-38 Michael Tonry ed.
    • Philip J. Cook, The Technology of Personal Violence, in CRIME AND JUSTICE: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH 1, 37-38 (Michael Tonry ed., 1991). The second basis for estimating the stock is the one-time National Survey of the Personal Ownership of Firearms (NSPOF), conducted in 1994. This is the only survey that has attempted to determine the number of guns in private hands. A number of other surveys, including the General Social Survey, provide an estimate of the prevalence of gun ownership among individuals and households but do not attempt to determine the average number of guns per gun owner. "The NSPOF estimate for the number of guns in 1994 was 192 million, a number that is compatible with the 'sales accumulation' method, assuming that just 15 percent of the new guns sold since 1899 have been discarded or destroyed."
    • (1991) Crime and Justice: A Review of Research , pp. 1
    • Cook, P.J.1
  • 14
    • 33745780322 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aiming for evidence-based gun policy
    • 699 n.9
    • Philip J. Cook & Jens Ludwig, Aiming for Evidence-Based Gun Policy, 25 J. POL'Y ANALYSIS & MGMT. 691, 699 n.9 (2006). Since the NSPOF survey, the annual rate of net additions to the gun stock has been about 4-5 million per year, or 50-60 million by 2006.
    • (2006) J. Pol'y Analysis & Mgmt. , vol.25 , pp. 691
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2
  • 15
    • 2542547105 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BUREAU OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO & FIREARMS
    • See BUREAU OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO & FIREARMS, FIREARMS COMMERCE IN THE UNITED STATES exhibits 1-3 (2002). Given a continued removal rate of just 1 percent, the stock as of 2006 would be about 220 million.
    • (2002) Firearms Commerce in the United States Exhibits , pp. 1-3
  • 17
    • 78650554128 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 14, 32
    • See id. at 14, 32.
  • 18
    • 78650537248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 9
    • See id. at 9;
  • 20
    • 78650528765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 13-14, 32
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 13-14, 32.
  • 21
    • 1642628240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State and local prevalence of firearms ownership: Measurement, structure, and trends
    • app. at 58-59 tbl.AIV
    • See Deborah Azrael, Philip J. Cook & Matthew Miller, State and Local Prevalence of Firearms Ownership: Measurement, Structure, and Trends, 20 J. QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 43, app. at 58-59 tbl.AIV (2004).
    • (2004) J. Quantitative Criminology , vol.20 , pp. 43
    • Azrael, D.1    Cook, P.J.2    Miller, M.3
  • 22
    • 78650530373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 31-32, 50 tbl.5.6
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 31-32, 50 tbl.5.6.
  • 23
    • 78650576822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 32-35
    • Id. at 32-35.
  • 24
    • 14644408990 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CRIMINAL JUSTICE SERVS. DIV., U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE tbl.38
    • See CRIMINAL JUSTICE SER VS. DIV., U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, CRIME IN THE UNITED STATES 2007, tbl.38 (2008), http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/data/table- 38.html (indicating that only about 23 percent of violent crimes are committed by people between ages thirty and forty-nine);
    • (2008) Crime in the United States 2007
  • 25
    • 34247796745 scopus 로고
    • Poverty, income inequality, and violent crime: A meta-analysis of recent aggregate data studies
    • 198
    • Ching-Chi Hsieh & M.D. Pugh, Poverty, Income Inequality, and Violent Crime: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Aggregate Data Studies, 18 CRIM.. JUST. REV. 182, 198 (1993) (showing a correlation between poverty, income inequality, and violent crime).
    • (1993) Crim.. Just. Rev. , vol.18 , pp. 182
    • Hsieh, C.-C.1    Pugh, M.D.2
  • 26
    • 78650534651 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 35
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 35.
  • 27
    • 78650544120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 13 (noting that, according to the NSPOF estimate, sixty-five million of the total 192 million privately owned firearms are handguns)
    • See id. at 13 (noting that, according to the NSPOF estimate, sixty-five million of the total 192 million privately owned firearms are handguns);
  • 28
    • 78650536286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • at 39 tbl.4-6 (noting that 74.4 percent of handgun owners own a gun for self defense, while 14.9 percent of long gun owners own a gun for self defense)
    • id. at 39 tbl.4-6 (noting that 74.4 percent of handgun owners own a gun for self defense, while 14.9 percent of long gun owners own a gun for self defense).
  • 29
    • 0003611681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BUREAU OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO & FIREARMS fig.5 dating the decline at 1997
    • See BUREAU OF ALCOHOL, TOBACCO & FIREARMS, COMMERCE IN FIREARMS IN THE UNITED STATES 7 fig.5 (2000) (dating the decline at 1997).
    • (2000) Commerce in Firearms in the United States , pp. 7
  • 30
    • 78650577370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 39 tbl.4.6
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 39 tbl.4.6.
  • 31
    • 78650556319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 38
    • See id. at 38.
  • 32
    • 78650533512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 26
    • See id. at 26.
  • 35
    • 0005467506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comprehensive firearms tracing: Strategic and investigative uses of new data on firearms markets
    • 291-92
    • Philip J. Cook & Anthony A. Braga, Comprehensive Firearms Tracing: Strategic and Investigative Uses of New Data on Firearms Markets, 43 ARIZ. L. REV. 277, 291-92 (2001);
    • (2001) Ariz. L. Rev. , vol.43 , pp. 277
    • Cook, P.J.1    Braga, A.A.2
  • 37
    • 78650560088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 25 tbl.3.11
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 12, at 25 tbl.3.11.
  • 38
    • 78650527610 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 41
    • See id. at 41;
  • 39
    • 78650543802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • KLECK, supra note 11, at 90
    • KLECK, supra note 11, at 90.
  • 41
    • 78650575806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 42
    • 0003463060 scopus 로고
    • NAT'L OFFICE OF VITAL STATISTICS, U.S. DEP'T OF HEALTH, EDUC. & WELFARE
    • See NAT'L OFFICE OF VITAL STATISTICS, U.S. DEP'T OF HEALTH, EDUC. & WELFARE, VITAL STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES 1950, at 74-75 (1950), available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/vsus/VSUS-1950-3.pdf;
    • (1950) Vital Statistics of the United States 1950 , pp. 74-75
  • 44
    • 78650561058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32 at. 21-27
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32 at. 21-27.
  • 46
    • 78650581685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ctrs. for Disease Control &. Prevention & Nat'l Ctr. for Injury Prevention &. Control (last visited May 23, 2009)
    • See Ctrs. for Disease Control &. Prevention & Nat'l Ctr. for Injury Prevention &. Control, WISQARS Nonfatal Injuries: Nonfatal Injury Reports, available at http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates.html (last visited May 23, 2009).
    • WISQARS Nonfatal Injuries: Nonfatal Injury Reports
  • 47
    • 78650569835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • HERON ET AL., supra note 34, at 19 tbl.2 (reporting data)
    • See HERON ET AL., supra note 34, at 19 tbl.2 (reporting data);
  • 48
    • 0024295607 scopus 로고
    • Operational criteria for determining suicide
    • Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention 773, 779 (observing that coroner standards for identifying suicides vary and may be error-prone)
    • Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, Operational Criteria for Determining Suicide, 37 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 773, 773, 779 (1988), available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwR/preview/mmwrhtml/00001318.htm (observing that coroner standards for identifying suicides vary and may be error-prone).
    • (1988) Morbidity & Mortality Wkly. Rep. , vol.37 , pp. 773
  • 49
    • 78650565615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WISQARS, supra note 30
    • See WISQARS, supra note 30.
  • 50
    • 78650568846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 51
    • 23044450213 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Criminal records of homicide offenders
    • See Philip J. Cook, Jens Ludwig & Anthony A. Braga, Criminal Records of Homicide Offenders, 294 J. AM. MED. ASS'N 598 (2005);
    • (2005) J. Am. Med. Ass'n , vol.294 , pp. 598
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2    Braga, A.A.3
  • 52
    • 84937274401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Youth violence in Boston: Gun markets, serious youth offenders, and a L/se-reduction strategy
    • Winter 191 tbl.2
    • David. M. Kennedy, Anne M. Piehl & Anthony A. Braga, Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, and a L/se-Reduction Strategy, L & CONTEMP. PROBS., Winter 1996, at 147, 191 tbl.2;
    • (1996) L & Contemp. Probs. , pp. 147
    • Kennedy, D.M.1    Piehl, A.M.2    Braga, A.A.3
  • 53
    • 0027364355 scopus 로고
    • Urban firearm deaths: A five-year perspective
    • Michael D. McGonigal et al., Urban Firearm Deaths: A Five-Year Perspective, 35 J. TRAUMA 532 (1993);
    • (1993) J. Trauma , vol.35 , pp. 532
    • McGonigal, M.D.1
  • 55
    • 78650565616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 23-24
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 23-24.
  • 56
    • 78650541957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New approach: Prosecutors take aim at gun crimes
    • Mar. 8
    • J.M. Kalil, New Approach: Prosecutors Take Aim at Gun Crimes, LAS VEGAS REV.-J., Mar. 8, 2002, at 1B.
    • (2002) Las Vegas Rev.-J.
    • Kalil, J.M.1
  • 57
    • 78650567468 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 11
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 11.
  • 58
    • 78650531870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 10
    • See id. at 10.
  • 59
    • 0035619302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The benefits of reducing gun violence: Evidence from contingent-valuation survey data
    • 213-14
    • See Jens Ludwig & Philip J. Cook, The Benefits of Reducing Gun Violence: Evidence From Contingent-Valuation Survey Data, 22 J. RISK & UNCERTAINTY 207, 213-14 (2001). This estimate is intended to capture the costs of gun misuse and so ignores the benefits to society of widespread gun ownership-in the same way that studies of the social costs of automobile accidents ignore the benefits of driving. The figure comes, in part, from contingent-valuation (CV) responses about what people say they would pay to reduce crime-related gun violence by 30 percent. One potential concern is that these estimates assume that societal willingness to pay to reduce gun violence, is linear with the proportion of gun violence, eliminated, which may not be the case. And in practice there remains some uncertainty about the reliability of the CV measurement technology. In any case, most of the estimated costs of gun violence in the. United States appear to come from crime, insofar as suicide is treated as a private concern, and the estimated costs of gun crime fits comfortably next to more recent CV estimates for the social costs of crime more generally.
    • (2001) J. Risk & Uncertainty , vol.22 , pp. 207
    • Ludwig, J.1    Cook, P.J.2
  • 60
    • 78650559741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 10-11
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 10-11;
  • 61
    • 1642602824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Willingness-to-pay for crime control programs
    • 105
    • see also Mark A. Cohen et al., Willingness-to-Pay for Crime Control Programs, 42 CRIMINOLOGY 89, 105 (2004).
    • (2004) Criminology , vol.42 , pp. 89
    • Cohen, M.A.1
  • 63
    • 0038926558 scopus 로고
    • Firearms and federal law: The gun control act of 1968
    • 175
    • See Franklin E. Zimring, Firearms and Federal Law: The Gun Control Act of 1968, 4 J. LEGAL STUD. 133, 175 (1975).
    • (1975) J. Legal Stud. , vol.4 , pp. 133
    • Zimring, F.E.1
  • 64
    • 78650570811 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pub. L. No. 90-351, § 902, 82 Stat. 226 (1968) & Pub. L. No. 90-618, § 102, 82 Stat. 1214 (1968) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §§ 921-930 (2006))
    • Pub. L. No. 90-351, § 902, 82 Stat. 226 (1968) & Pub. L. No. 90-618, § 102, 82 Stat. 1214 (1968) (codified at 18 U.S.C. §§ 921-930 (2006)).
  • 65
    • 78650584358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 18 U.S.C. § 922(b)-(e) (2006). The McClure-Volkmer Amendment of 1986 eased the restriction on out-of-state purchases of rifles and shotguns. Id. §§ 922-923. Such purchases are now legal as long as they comply with the regulations of both the buyer's state of residence and the state in which the sale occurs
    • See 18 U.S.C. § 922(b)-(e) (2006). The McClure-Volkmer Amendment of 1986 eased the restriction on out-of-state purchases of rifles and shotguns. Id. §§ 922-923. Such purchases are now legal as long as they comply with the regulations of both the buyer's state of residence and the state in which the sale occurs.
  • 66
    • 78650530686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 922(d)(1), (3), (4), (5)(A), (9)
    • See id. § 922(d)(1), (3), (4), (5)(A), (9).
  • 67
    • 78650576821 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 922(b)(1)
    • See id. § 922(b)(1).
  • 68
    • 78650556633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. §922(s)(1)(A)(i)(I), (s)(3)(A)-(B), (t)(1)
    • See id. §922(s)(1)(A)(i)(I), (s)(3)(A)-(B), (t)(1).
  • 70
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    • A public health approach to regulating firearms as consumer products
    • 1195-96
    • Jon S. Vernick & Stephen P. Teret, A Public Health Approach to Regulating Firearms as Consumer Products, 148 U. PA. L. REV. 1193, 1195-96 (2000).
    • (2000) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.148 , pp. 1193
    • Vernick, J.S.1    Teret, S.P.2
  • 71
    • 78650570186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 18 U.S.C. § 921(a)(21)(C) (2006)
    • See 18 U.S.C. § 921(a)(21)(C) (2006).
  • 72
    • 78650528431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 52
    • See LCAV REPORT, supra note 52, at 113-18.
    • Lcav Report , pp. 113-118
  • 73
    • 78650550473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • infra Part ILA-II.B. On the District's revised rules, see infra note 118
    • See infra Part ILA-II.B. On the District's revised rules, see infra note 118.
  • 74
    • 0347936732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §§ 12072(a)(9), (c)(6), 12071(b)(7)(F) West Supp.
    • See CAL. PENAL CODE §§ 12072(a)(9), (c)(6), 12071(b)(7)(F) (West Supp. 2009);
    • (2009) Cal. Penal Code
  • 75
    • 70449647648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PUB. SAFETY § 5-128(a)-(b) LexisNexis
    • MD. CODE ANN., PUB. SAFETY § 5-128(a)-(b) (LexisNexis 2003);
    • (2003) Md. Code Ann.
  • 76
    • 0347305388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 18.2-308.2:2(P) Supp.
    • VA. CODE ANN. § 18.2-308.2:2(P) (Supp. 2008);
    • (2008) Va. Code Ann.
  • 77
    • 78650528431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 52
    • see also LCAV REPORT, supra note 52, at 140-41.
    • Lcav Report , pp. 140-141
  • 78
    • 78650579658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 26 U.S.C §§5801-72 (2006)
    • See 26 U.S.C §§5801-72 (2006).
  • 79
    • 78650539541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 5845
    • See id. § 5845.
  • 80
    • 78650532833 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 5811
    • See id. § 5811.
  • 81
    • 78650534024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 5861
    • See id. § 5861.
  • 84
    • 78650555948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zimring, supra note 46, at 154-56
    • Zimring, supra note 46, at 154-56
  • 85
    • 78650554754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An important loophole allowed the import of parts of handguns that could not meet the 'sporting purposes' test of the Gun Control Act. This loophole was closed by the McClure-Volkmer Amendment of 1986. Cook, Moore & Braga, supra at 291, 616 n.24
    • . "An important loophole allowed the import of parts of handguns that could not meet the 'sporting purposes' test of the Gun Control Act. This loophole was closed by the McClure-Volkmer Amendment of 1986." Cook, Moore & Braga, supra at 291, 616 n.24.
  • 86
    • 78650534023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zimring, supra note 46, at 165
    • See Zimring, supra note 46, at 165;
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    • Effect of current federal regulations on handgun safety features
    • 5
    • See John S. Milne et al., Effect of Current Federal Regulations on Handgun Safety Features, 41 ANNALS EMERGENCY MED. 1, 5 (2003);
    • (2003) Annals Emergency Med. , vol.41 , pp. 1
    • Milne, J.S.1
  • 91
    • 78650584023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 110102
    • See id. § 110102.
  • 92
    • 78650568845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 110103(b)(31)(A)
    • See id. § 110103(b)(31)(A).
  • 93
    • 0035607425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The impact of the 1994 federal assault weapon ban on gun violence outcomes: An assessment of multiple outcome measures and some lessons for policy evaluation
    • 36
    • See Christopher S. Koper & Jeffrey A. Roth, The Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapon Ban on Gun Violence Outcomes: An Assessment of Multiple Outcome Measures and Some Lessons for Policy Evaluation, 17 J. QUANTITATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 33, 36 (2001).
    • (2001) J. Quantitative Criminology , vol.17 , pp. 33
    • Koper, C.S.1    Roth, J.A.2
  • 95
    • 78650551420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vernick &. Teret, supra note 52, at 1196
    • See Vernick &. Teret, supra note 52, at 1196.
  • 97
    • 78650538202 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The new rules effectively ban Saturday Night Specials and require that handguns sold in Massachusetts include childproof locks, tamper-proof serial numbers, and safety warnings. The new gun safety regulations affect manufacturers as well as retailers
    • The new rules effectively ban Saturday Night Specials and require that handguns sold in Massachusetts include childproof locks, tamper-proof serial numbers, and safety warnings. The new gun safety regulations affect manufacturers as well as retailers.
  • 98
    • 78650547498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 16.01-09
    • See 940 MASS. CODE REGS. 16.01-09 (2008).
    • (2008) Mass. Code Regs. , vol.940
  • 99
    • 70350427021 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PUB. SAFETY §§ 5-405 to -406 LexisNexis 2003 & Supp.
    • See MD. CODE ANN., PUB. SAFETY §§ 5-405 to -406 (LexisNexis 2003 & Supp. 2008).
    • (2008) Md. Code Ann.
  • 100
    • 78650531249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 5-405
    • See id. § 5-405;
  • 101
    • 0033250047 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of maryland's law banning saturday night special handguns on crime guns
    • 75
    • see also Jon S. Vernick et al., Effects of Maryland's Law Banning Saturday Night Special Handguns on Crime Guns, 5 INJ. PREVENTION 259 (1999). 75.
    • (1999) Inj. Prevention , vol.5 , pp. 259
    • Vernick, J.S.1
  • 102
    • 78650528431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 52
    • See LCAV REPORT, supra note 52, at 145 (listing states that require "design and/or safety standards" that serve to ban Saturday Night Specials).
    • Lcav Report , pp. 145
  • 103
    • 78650531868 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 17, 146-48
    • See id. at 17, 146-48.
  • 104
    • 78650532831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 136
    • Seeid. at 136.
  • 105
    • 78650525685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 132
    • See id. at 132;
  • 108
    • 78650528431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 52
    • See LCAV REPORT, supra note 52, at xiii.
    • Lcav Report
  • 109
    • 78650577141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 152
    • See id. at 152.
  • 110
    • 70449647648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PUB. SAFETY § 5-132 LexisNexis
    • See MD. CODE ANN., PUB. SAFETY § 5-132 (LexisNexis 2003).
    • (2003) Md. Code Ann.
  • 111
    • 78650568842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 18 U.S.C. §923(g)(1)(A)-(B) (2006). 84. See Cook & Braga, supra note 27, at 301
    • See 18 U.S.C. §923(g)(1)(A)-(B) (2006). 84. See Cook & Braga, supra note 27, at 301.
  • 112
    • 78650559424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 26 U.S.C. §§ 5801-72 (2006)
    • 26 U.S.C. §§ 5801-72 (2006).
  • 113
    • 78650564234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id
    • See id.
  • 114
    • 0347936732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 12072(d) West
    • See CAL. PENAL CODE § 12072(d) (West 2008).
    • (2008) Cal. Penal Code
  • 115
    • 78650542272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. § 12126(b)(7)
    • See id. § 12126(b)(7).
  • 116
    • 1642532472 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State and federal gun laws: Trends for 1970-1999
    • 363, 367
    • See, e.g., Jon S. Vernick & Lisa M. Hepburn, State and Federal Gun Laws: Trends for 1970-1999, in EVALUATING GUN POLICY: EFFECTS ON CRIME AND VIOLENCE 345, 363, 367 (Jens Ludwig & Philip J. Cook eds., 2003) (comparing numbers of gun laws at different levels of government, and noting more restrictive regulation in certain Ohio cities than at the state level).
    • (2003) Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence , pp. 345
    • Vernick, J.S.1    Hepburn, L.M.2
  • 120
    • 77953254979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • City lawsuits against the gun industry: A roadmap for reforming gun industry misconduct
    • 248-49
    • Brian J. Siebel, City Lawsuits Against the Gun Industry: A Roadmap for Reforming Gun Industry Misconduct, 18 ST. LOUIS U. PUB. L. REV. 247, 248-49 (1999);
    • (1999) St. Louis U. Pub. L. Rev. , vol.18 , pp. 247
    • Siebel, B.J.1
  • 121
    • 0009020529 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New courtroom strategies regarding firearms: Tort litigation against firearm manufacturers and constitutional challenges to gun laws
    • 1746-49
    • see also Jon S. Vernick & Stephen P. Teret, New Courtroom Strategies Regarding Firearms: Tort Litigation Against Firearm Manufacturers and Constitutional Challenges to Gun Laws, 36 HOUS. L. REV. 1713, 1746-49 (1999). Thirty other cities and counties filed suits against the gun industry, claiming negligence in marketing practices, product design, or both.
    • (1999) Hous. L. Rev. , vol.36 , pp. 1713
    • Vernick, J.S.1    Teret, S.P.2
  • 122
    • 78650550161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction: An overview of lawsuits against the gun industry
    • 1-35 Timothy D. Lytton ed.
    • See generally Timothy D. Lytton, Introduction: An Overview of Lawsuits Against the Gun Industry, in SUING THE GUN INDUSTRY 1,1-35 (Timothy D. Lytton ed., 2005).
    • (2005) Suing the Gun Industry , pp. 1
    • Lytton, T.D.1
  • 123
    • 70349704773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Forty-Six States Agree to Accept $206 Billion Tobacco Settlement
    • NOV. 2.3
    • See Milo Geyelin, Forty-Six States Agree to Accept $206 Billion Tobacco Settlement, WALL ST. J., NOV. 2.3, 1998, at B13.
    • (1998) Wall St. J.
    • Geyelin, M.1
  • 124
    • 78650572876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Morial, 785 So. 2d at 6
    • See Morial, 785 So. 2d at 6.
  • 125
    • 78650537883 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lytton, supra note 92, at 5. 96. 18 U.S.C. § 922(z) (2006)
    • Lytton, supra note 92, at 5. 96. 18 U.S.C. § 922(z) (2006).
  • 126
    • 84898306157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Afterword: Federal gun industry immunity legislation
    • supra note 92, 339-54
    • See Timothy D. Lytton, Afterword: Federal Gun Industry Immunity Legislation, in SUING THE GUN INDUSTRY, supra note 92, at 339, 339-54.
    • Suing the Gun Industry , pp. 339
    • Lytton, T.D.1
  • 127
    • 47149092798 scopus 로고
    • 116 U.S. 252, 26466
    • See Presser v. Illinois, 116 U.S. 252, 264-66 (1886);
    • (1886) Presser V. Illinois
  • 129
    • 78650583700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 307 U.S. 174 (1939)
    • 307 U.S. 174 (1939).
  • 130
    • 78650562948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 178 (seeking evidence that a sawed-off shotgun "has some reasonable, relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia").
    • See id. at 178 (seeking evidence that a sawed-off shotgun "has some reasonable, relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia").
  • 131
    • 78650538548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 185 F.3d 693, 710-11 7th Ctr.
    • See, e.g., Gillespie v. City of Indianapolis, 185 F.3d 693, 710-11 (7th Ctr. 1999). Results from litigation involving state constitutions were not dramatically different. State supreme courts invoked state gun rights to invalidate only a few state, regulations after World War II.
    • (1999) Gillespie V. City of Indianapolis
  • 132
    • 33846859753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Scrutinizing the second amendment
    • 716-26
    • See Adam Winkler, Scrutinizing the Second Amendment, 105 MICH. L. REV. 683, 716-26 (2007).
    • (2007) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.105 , pp. 683
    • Winkler, A.1
  • 133
    • 57649096450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dead or Alwe: Originalism as Popular Constitutionalism in Heller
    • For a view of the gun rights movement, political institutions, and Heller, see Reva B. Siegel, Dead or Alwe: Originalism as Popular Constitutionalism in Heller, 122 HARV. L. REV. 191 (2008).
    • (2008) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.122 , pp. 191
    • Siegel, R.B.1
  • 134
    • 0006797976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Under fire: The new consensus on the second amendment
    • See, e.g., Randy E. Barnett & Don B. Kates, Under Fire: The New Consensus on the Second Amendment, 45 EMORY LJ. 1139 (1996);
    • (1996) Emory Lj. , vol.45 , pp. 1139
    • Barnett, R.E.1    Kates, D.B.2
  • 135
    • 0040460797 scopus 로고
    • The second amendment: Touttrdan afro-americanist reconsideration
    • Robert. J. Cottrol & Raymond T. Diamond, The Second Amendment: Touttrdan Afro-Americanist Reconsideration, 80 GEO. LJ. 309 (1991);
    • (1991) Geo. Lj. , vol.80 , pp. 309
    • Cottrol, R.J.1    Diamond, R.T.2
  • 136
    • 70349798776 scopus 로고
    • The embarrassing second amendment
    • Sanford Levinson, The Embarrassing Second Amendment, 99 YALE LJ. 637 (1989);
    • (1989) Yale Lj. , vol.99 , pp. 637
    • Levinson, S.1
  • 137
    • 0032370004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The commonplace second amendment
    • Eugene Volokh, The Commonplace Second Amendment, 73 N.Y.U. L REV. 793 (1998).
    • (1998) N.Y.U. L Rev. , vol.73 , pp. 793
    • Volokh, E.1
  • 139
    • 60950675541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The second amendment: The highest stage of originolism
    • Jack N. Rakove, The Second Amendment: The Highest Stage of Originolism, 76 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 103 (2000),
    • (2000) Chi.-Kent L. Rev. , vol.76 , pp. 103
    • Rakove, J.N.1
  • 140
    • 78650560433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 113 Carl T. Bogus ed.
    • reprinted in THE SECOND AMENDMENT IN LAW AND HISTORY 74, 113 (Carl T. Bogus ed., 2000) ("[I]t is completely anachronistic to expect the disputants of the eighteenth century to have comprehended, much less addressed, the problem of firearms regulation in its modern form."). On competing theories for the gist of the amendment's meaning,
    • (2000) The Second Amendment in Law and History , pp. 74
  • 142
    • 42949107256 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 521 U.S. 898, 938-39
    • See Printz v. United States, 521 U.S. 898, 938-39 (1997) (Thomas, J., concurring) (joining the majority opinion, which relied on federalism principles, but pointing to a Second Amendment argument).
    • (1997) Printz V. United States
  • 143
    • 73049098066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 270 F.3d 203, 260-61 5th Cir.
    • See United States v. Emerson, 270 F.3d 203, 260-61 (5th Cir. 2001) (upholding a conviction for gun possession while die defendant was subject to a domestic violence restraining order), cert. denied, 536 US. 907 (2002).
    • (2001) United States V. Emerson
  • 144
    • 78650530371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nov. 9, When Emerson sought review in the Supreme Court, the Solicitor General abandoned the militia-related view of the amendment.
    • See Memorandum from the Attorney General to AU United States Attorneys (Nov. 9, 2001 ), available at http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/readingroom/emerson.htm. When Emerson sought review in the Supreme Court, the Solicitor General abandoned the militia-related view of the amendment.
    • (2001) Memorandum from the Attorney General to AU United States Attorneys
  • 145
    • 40749084517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 5.36 U.S. 907
    • See Brief for the United States in Opposition at 20 n.3, United States v. Emerson, 5.36 U.S. 907 (2002) (No. 01-8780) (accepting, however, "reasonable restrictions designed to prevent possession by unfit persons or to restrict the possession of types of fireanns that are particularly suited to criminal misuse").
    • (2002) United States V. Emerson
  • 146
    • 78650563284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008)
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783 (2008).
  • 147
    • 78650541651 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Originolism's expiration date
    • 130810
    • For an analysis of such time lags, see Adam M. Samaha, Originolism's Expiration Date, 30 CARDOZO L REV. 1295, 1308-10 (2008) (estimating the average lag between formal amendment and Supreme Court interpretation at forty years).
    • (2008) Cardozo L Rev. , vol.30 , pp. 1295
    • Samaha, A.M.1
  • 148
    • 78650561364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2788 & n.2 (relating the lower court's understanding of the facts of the case)
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2788 & n.2 (relating the lower court's understanding of the facts of the case).
  • 149
    • 77950278642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 7-2502.01 LexisNexis
    • See D.C. CODE ANN. § 7-2502.01 (LexisNexis 2008).
    • (2008) D.C. Code Ann.
  • 150
    • 78650583699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. § 7-2507.02
    • Id. § 7-2507.02.
  • 151
    • 78650566537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id
    • See id.
  • 152
    • 78650537524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • § 22-4506 LexisNexis
    • See D.C. CODE ANN. § 22-4506 (LexisNexis 2001).
    • (2001) D.C. Code Ann.
  • 153
    • 78650555353 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2819 (stating reasons for not addressing the issue of firearms licensing)
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2819 (stating reasons for not addressing the issue of firearms licensing).
  • 154
    • 78650583698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2812-13 & n.2.3
    • See id. at 2812-13 & n.2.3.
  • 155
    • 78650579322 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2823 (Stevens, J., dissenting); id. at 2847 (Breyer, J., dissenting)
    • See id. at 2823 (Stevens, J., dissenting); id. at 2847 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
  • 156
    • 32244434850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The politics of judicial review
    • See supra notes 3-4 (citing polling and majority congressional opposition to flat handgun bans). There is a large empirical literature on the determinants of judicial behavior which we will not delve into here. See, e.g., Barry Friedman, The Politics of Judicial Review, 84 TEX. L. REV. 257 (2005). For the classic view of the Court as sticking close to national governing coalitions,
    • (2005) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.84 , pp. 257
    • Friedman, B.1
  • 157
    • 0000770507 scopus 로고
    • Decisio-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker
    • see Robert A. Dahl, Decisio-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker, 6 J. PUB. L. 279 (1957).
    • (1957) J. Pub. L. , vol.6 , pp. 279
    • Dahl, R.A.1
  • 158
    • 78650551094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is sued again over handgun rules
    • July 29
    • The District's first temporary legislative reaction to Heller allowed registration of handguns (excluding semi-automatics) for in-home self-defense (after a ballistics test), and allowed trigger locks to be removed when the owner reasonably feared imminent harm in the home. See Del Quentin Wilber & Paul Duggan, D.C. Is Sued Again Over Handgun Rules, WASH. POST, July 29, 2008, at BOl. The District's second round of temporary legislation can be found at Second Firearms Control Emergency Act of 2008, available at http://mpdc.dc.gov/ mpdc/frames.aspidoc=/mpdc/lib/mpdc/info/pdf/2ndFire armsControl-Act.pdf.
    • (2008) Wash. Post
    • Wilber, D.Q.1    Paul Duggan, D.C.2
  • 159
    • 78650561987 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2792-97, 2789-90 nn.3-4
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2792-97, 2789-90 nn.3-4.
  • 160
    • 78650546544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2800-02
    • See id. at 2800-02.
  • 161
    • 78650543466 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2801-02
    • See id. at 2801-02.
  • 163
    • 78650546012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2817
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2817.
  • 164
    • 78650581383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2799
    • Id. at 2799.
  • 165
    • 78650530051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2801
    • Id. at 2801.
  • 166
    • 78650526663 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2817
    • Id. at 2817.
  • 167
    • 78650552383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at. 2818 (referring to "the core lawful purpose" of self-defense)
    • See id. at. 2818 (referring to "the core lawful purpose" of self-defense).
  • 168
    • 78650551093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2788, 2822
    • See id. at 2788, 2822.
  • 169
    • 78650565318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2816
    • Id. at 2816.
  • 170
    • 78650582601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2817 n.26
    • Id. at 2817 n.26.
  • 171
    • 78650544421 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2815-16 (emphasis added)
    • Id. at 2815-16 (emphasis added).
  • 172
    • 78650562947 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2817
    • Id. at 2817.
  • 173
    • 78650576134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2817-18
    • See id. at 2817-18.
  • 174
    • 78650564556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2815, 2817. 135. Id. at 2816-17
    • See id. at 2815, 2817. 135. Id. at 2816-17.
  • 175
    • 78650552860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2820
    • Id. at 2820.
  • 176
    • 78650541956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2816. On unconcealed pistols, see infra Part III.C
    • See id. at 2816. On unconcealed pistols, see infra Part III.C.
  • 177
    • 78650549485 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Second Amendment Foundation maintains a website dedicated to the case. See ChicagoGunCase.com, http://www.chicagoguncase.com (last visited May 23, 2009).
  • 178
    • 78650530912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • §§ 8-20-040(a), 8-20-050(c)
    • Plaintiffs are challenging Chicago's handgun ban, see CHI., ILL., MUN. CODE §§ 8-20-040(a), 8-20-050(c) (2008) (noting exceptions), as well as the city's requirement that firearms be registered before acquisition and then re-registered annually, see id. §§ 8-20-090(a), 8-20-200. However, Chicago law seems to differ from the District of Columbia's regime at issue in Heller, in that Chicago does not appear to mandate a trigger lock on all firearms in the home at all times. Whether any such difference will influence the outcome of litigation remains to be seen.
    • (2008) Chi., Ill., Mun. Code
  • 179
    • 72749111966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 563 F.3d 439, 457, 460 9th Cir.
    • See Nordyke v. King, 563 F.3d 439, 457, 460 (9th Cir. 2009) (concluding that Second Amendment rights are incorporated into the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, but then upholding this regulation of firearms on county property and stating that "th. Ordinance does not meaningfully impede the ability of individuals to defend themselves in their homes with usable firearms, the core of the right as Heller analyzed it").
    • (2009) Nordyke V. King
  • 180
    • 78650561053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defense lawyers fire first shot in challenge to state gun law
    • July 16
    • See Daniel Wise, Defense Lawyers Fire First Shot in Challenge to State Gun Law, N.Y. L.J., July 16, 2008, at 1.
    • (2008) N.Y. L.J. , pp. 1
    • Wise, D.1
  • 181
    • 0038421546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 286 F. App'x 383, 386 9th Cir. cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 613 (2008)
    • These arguments have not been successful in lower federal courts, however. See, e.g., United States v. Gilbert, 286 F. App'x 383, 386 (9th Cir. 2008), cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 613 (2008);
    • (2008) United States V. Gilbert
  • 182
    • 0038421546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. 3:07-CR-32, 2008 WL 4500118, at. *1 E.D. Term. Sept. 30
    • United States v. Whisnant, No. 3:07-CR-32, 2008 WL 4500118, at. *1 (E.D. Term. Sept. 30, 2008) (collecting cases);
    • (2008) United States V. Whisnant
  • 183
    • 70349813735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller's catch-22
    • 1564-66
    • see also Adam Winkler, Heller's Catch-22, 56 UCLA L. REV. 1551, 1564-66 (2009) (analyzing post- Heller lower court cases).
    • (2009) Ucla L. Rev. , vol.56 , pp. 1551
    • Winkler, A.1
  • 184
    • 78650539542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gun bans erode under pressure: Evanston is the latest to repeal its handgun law
    • Aug. 13
    • See Deborah Horan, Gun Bans Erode Under Pressure: Evanston Is the Latest to Repeal Its Handgun Law, CHI. TRIB., Aug. 13, 2008, available at http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-gun-ban-13aug13,0,1421061.story. Prevailing plaintiffs may recover their attorney fees from state and local defendants in federal constitutional litigation, but prevailing defendants normally cannot.
    • (2008) Chi. Trib.
    • Horan, D.1
  • 186
    • 78650534022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. CV-08-03112 TEH N.D. Cal. Jan. 12
    • See Stipulation Regarding Settlement and Dismissal of Defendants San Francisco Housing Authority and Henry Alvarez III Without Prejudice, Doe v. S.F. Hous. Auth., No. CV-08-03112 TEH (N.D. Cal. Jan. 12, 2009) (continuing, however, to prohibit unlawful firearms and ammunition possession), available at http://volokh.com/files/sfoublichousingguns.pdf.
    • (2009) Doe V. S.F. Hous. Auth.
  • 187
    • 72749122817 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2783, 2788, 2810
    • See District of Columbia v. Heller, 128 S. Ct. 2783, 2788, 2810 (2008). For a discussion of different versions of originalism,
    • (2008) District of Columbia V. Heller
  • 188
    • 78650564976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Samaha, supra note 108, at 1327-29
    • see Samaha, supra note 108, at 1327-29.
  • 189
    • 78650555631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2821
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2821.
  • 190
    • 78650585641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2847-68 (Breyer, J., dissenting)
    • See id. at 2847-68 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
  • 191
    • 78650530052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2821 (majority opinion); see also id. ("Constitutional rights are enshrined with the scope they were understood to have when the people adopted them...."). Of course, a right's originally understood scope-to the extent that its meaning was determinate within the relevant population at the relevant time - could include consideration of circumstances that may change and authorize future decisionmakers to adjust in light of those changes.
    • Id. at 2821 (majority opinion); see also id. ("Constitutional rights are enshrined with the scope they were understood to have when the people adopted them...."). Of course, a right's originally understood scope-to the extent that its meaning was determinate within the relevant population at the relevant time - could include consideration of circumstances that may change and authorize future decisionmakers to adjust in light of those changes.
  • 192
    • 78650585640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id
    • See id.
  • 193
    • 78650556630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at. 2811-12
    • See, e.g., id. at. 2811-12.
  • 194
    • 78650583357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2816-17
    • See id. at 2816-17.
  • 195
    • 78650526984 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2818
    • See id. at 2818.
  • 196
    • 78650566536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2817
    • See id. at 2817.
  • 197
    • 78650582599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2817-18
    • Id. at 2817-18.
  • 198
  • 199
    • 78650532189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2812-16.
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2812-16.
  • 200
    • 78650574503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at. 2813 n.23
    • Id. at. 2813 n.23;
  • 201
    • 78650563608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 2791 ("Some have made the argument, bordering on the frivolous, that only those arms in existence in the 18th century are protected by the Second Amendment. We do not interpret constitutional rights that way.").
    • see also id. at 2791 ("Some have made the argument, bordering on the frivolous, that only those arms in existence in the 18th century are protected by the Second Amendment. We do not interpret constitutional rights that way.").
  • 202
    • 78650526983 scopus 로고
    • 506 U.S. 224, 233
    • See, e.g., Nixon v. United States, 506 U.S. 224, 233 (1993).
    • (1993) Nixon V. United States
  • 203
    • 43949120447 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dead hand arguments and constitutional interpretation
    • 642
    • See Adam M. Samaha, Dead Hand Arguments and Constitutional Interpretation, 108 COLUM. L REV. 606, 642 (2008).
    • (2008) Colum. L Rev. , vol.108 , pp. 606
    • Samaha, A.M.1
  • 204
    • 77950486608 scopus 로고
    • 415 U.S. 189, 193
    • See, e.g., Curtis v. Loether, 415 U.S. 189, 193 (1974).
    • (1974) Curtis V. Loether
  • 205
    • 6344261187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 521 U.S. 702, 720-22
    • See, e.g., Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702, 720-22 (1997).
    • (1997) Washington V. Glucksberg
  • 206
    • 67650429812 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2759, 2770-74 (invalidating a campaign finance regulation by relying on free speech case law and not originalist history)
    • See, e.g., Davis v. FEC, 128 S. Ct. 2759, 2770-74 (2008) (invalidating a campaign finance regulation by relying on free speech case law and not originalist history);
    • (2008) Davis V. FEC
  • 207
    • 77950430579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 530 U.S. 914, 929-31 (invalidating a so-called partial birth abortion law). Davis was issued on the same day as Heller and was decided by the same 5-4 coalitions. The leading expositor of common law constitutionalism is David A. Strauss.
    • Stenberg v. Carhart, 530 U.S. 914, 929-31 (2000) (invalidating a so-called partial birth abortion law). Davis was issued on the same day as Heller and was decided by the same 5-4 coalitions. The leading expositor of common law constitutionalism is David A. Strauss.
    • (2000) Stenberg V. Carhart
  • 208
    • 0347419824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Common law constitutional interpretation
    • See David A. Strauss, Common Law Constitutional Interpretation, 63 U. CHI. L. REV. 877 (1996).
    • (1996) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.63 , pp. 877
    • Strauss, D.A.1
  • 209
    • 77950466509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 526 U.S. 29.5, 299-303
    • See, e.g., Wyoming v. Houghton, 526 U.S. 29.5, 299-303 (1999).
    • (1999) Wyoming V. Houghton
  • 210
    • 77950507181 scopus 로고
    • 424 U.S. 319, 332-35 and its "undue burden" test in abortion cases
    • Compare the Court's general balancing test for due process violations, which is a form of cost-benefit analysis, see Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319, 332-35 (1976), and its "undue burden" test in abortion cases,
    • (1976) Mathews V. Eldridge
  • 211
    • 72649105493 scopus 로고
    • 505 U.S. 833, 874 (plurality opinion), with its rulings in some federalism cases, which may promote more specific rules such as a prohibition on "commandeering" state officers
    • see Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833, 874 (1992) (plurality opinion), with its rulings in some federalism cases, which may promote more specific rules such as a prohibition on "commandeering" state officers,
    • (1992) Planned Parenthood of Se. Pa. V. Casey
  • 212
  • 213
    • 33846647656 scopus 로고
    • The supreme court, 1991 term-foreword: The justices of rules and standards
    • See generally Kathleen M. Sullivan, The Supreme Court, 1991 Term-Foreword: The Justices of Rules and Standards, 106 HARV. L. REV. 22 (1992).
    • (1992) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.106 , pp. 22
    • Sullivan, K.M.1
  • 214
    • 14944380056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 539 U.S. 306, 326
    • See, e.g., Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306, 326 (2003).
    • (2003) Grutter V. Bollinger
  • 217
    • 78650567152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part III.D.
    • See infra Part III.D.
  • 218
    • 71849108079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 128 S. Ct. 2641 (invalidating the death penalty for child rape).
    • In the same term that Heller was decided, Justice Kennedy assessed trends in state policies regarding the death penalty to adjudicate an Eighth Amendment claim. See Kennedy v. Louisiana, 128 S. Ct. 2641 (2008) (invalidating the death penalty for child rape).
    • (2008) Kennedy V. Louisiana
  • 221
    • 57549111457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Second Amendment Minimalism: Heller as Griswold
    • 263-65
    • A similar view is defended by Cass R. Sunstein, Second Amendment Minimalism: Heller as Griswold, 122 HARV. L. REV. 246, 263-65 (2008).
    • (2008) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.122 , pp. 246
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 223
    • 78650537562 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 138.
    • See supra note 138.
  • 224
    • 78650549815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 987 P.2d 73, 77 n.1, 78 n.2 Wash. (declining to conform state constitutional doctrine to a U.S. Supreme Court opinion on the Fourth Amendment).
    • One caveat is the possibility that state, courts' understanding of state constitutional gun rights could be influenced by the Supreme Court's understanding of the Second Amendment, regardless of incorporation, and that the latter understanding could turn out to be expansive. Assessing the likelihood of this possibility is difficult. Even if the Supreme Court does take an expansive view of the amendment, state courts need not follow. See, e.g., State v. Parker, 987 P.2d 73, 77 n.1, 78 n.2 (Wash. 1999) (declining to conform state constitutional doctrine to a U.S. Supreme Court opinion on the Fourth Amendment).
    • (1999) State V. Parker
  • 225
    • 0347845716 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • art. 1, § 12 (linking state, search and seizure guarantees to U.S. Supreme Court doctrine).
    • But cf. FLA. CONST. art. 1, § 12 (linking state, search and seizure guarantees to U.S. Supreme Court doctrine).
    • Fla. Const.
  • 226
    • 78650527300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also infra Part III.B (discussing the limited importance of handgun bans).
    • See also infra Part III.B (discussing the limited importance of handgun bans).
  • 227
    • 78650525050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2813 n.23.
    • See Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2813 n.23.
  • 228
    • 78650547499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 2809-11.
    • See id. at 2809-11.
  • 229
    • 78650574852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 450 (1857) (opinion of Taney, C.J.) (dictum) referring to the right to keep and bear arms in a list of unconstitutional federal "powers... in relation to rights of person"
    • 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 450 (1857) (opinion of Taney, C.J.) (dictum) (referring to the right to keep and bear arms in a list of unconstitutional federal "powers... in relation to rights of person"
  • 230
    • 72749086948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 478 F.3d 370, 391 D.C. Cir. aff'd sub nom.
    • (quoted in Parker v. District of Columbia, 478 F.3d 370, 391 (D.C. Cir. 2007), aff'd sub nom.
    • (2007) Parker V. District of Columbia
  • 232
    • 37949050453 scopus 로고
    • 391 U.S. 145, 148-49 (regarding jury trial rights in criminal cases).
    • See Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 148-49 (1968) (regarding jury trial rights in criminal cases).
    • (1968) Duncan V. Louisiana
  • 233
    • 78650563929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note that the plaintiffs challenging Chicago's handgun ban are asking the courts to reconsider the narrow understanding of the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause in the Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall) 36 (1873), in addition to arguing for incorporation under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
    • Note that the plaintiffs challenging Chicago's handgun ban are asking the courts to reconsider the narrow understanding of the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause in the Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall) 36 (1873), in addition to arguing for incorporation under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
  • 235
    • 78149289638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No. 08-CV-3645 N.D. Ill. Oct. 21, available at
    • McDonald v. City of Chicago, No. 08-CV-3645 (N.D. Ill. Oct. 21, 2008), available at http://www.chicagoguncase.com/wp-coiitentyuploads/2008/10/ motionnarrowlegalissues.pdf.
    • (2008) McDonald V. City of Chicago
  • 236
    • 78650551771 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2798 ("By the time of the founding, the right to have arms had become fundamental for English subjects.").
    • Cf. Heller, 128 S. Ct. at 2798 ("By the time of the founding, the right to have arms had become fundamental for English subjects.").
  • 237
    • 78650575805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 116 U.S. 252 (1886).
    • 116 U.S. 252 (1886).
  • 238
    • 78650578038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 264-66.
    • See id. at 264-66.
  • 239
    • 78650569830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Beckman, supra note 90
    • See Beckman, supra note 90;
  • 240
    • 78650527606 scopus 로고
    • 101 Cal. Rptr. 89, 89-90 Ct. App. (invalidating a San Francisco handgun permitting system in favor of state law).
    • see also Sippel v. Neider, 101 Cal. Rptr. 89, 89-90 (Ct. App. 1972) (invalidating a San Francisco handgun permitting system in favor of state law).
    • (1972) Sippel V. Neider
  • 242
    • 78650534972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id.
    • See id.,
  • 243
    • 78650526664 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Sunstein, supra note 170, at 252 (asserting that "national opposition to a ban on handguns has been larger and more consistent in recent years").
    • see also Sunstein, supra note 170, at 252 (asserting that "national opposition to a ban on handguns has been larger and more consistent in recent years").
  • 244
    • 84897801072 scopus 로고
    • 695 F.2d 261, 271 7th Ctr. (upholding a local operative handgun ban against Second Amendment, Ninth Amendment, and state constitutional claims)
    • See, e.g., Quilici v. Village of Morton Grove, 695 F.2d 261, 271 (7th Ctr. 1982) (upholding a local operative handgun ban against Second Amendment, Ninth Amendment, and state constitutional claims);
    • (1982) Quilici V. Village of Morton Grove
  • 245
    • 78650550776 scopus 로고
    • 470 N.E.2d 266, 278-79 Ill. (rejecting a claim under a qualified state constitutional right to keep and bear arms).
    • Kalodimos v. Village of Morton Grove, 470 N.E.2d 266, 278-79 (Ill. 1984) (rejecting a claim under a qualified state constitutional right to keep and bear arms).
    • (1984) Kalodimos V. Village of Morton Grove
  • 246
    • 78650545691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See SMITH, supra note 15, at 1 (showing support for a variety of gun regulations).
    • See SMITH, supra note 15, at 1 (showing support for a variety of gun regulations).
  • 247
    • 78650560432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • However, we cannot rule out the possibility that there is an unorganized majority in some states that would prefer greater decentralization in gun control policymaking, but that is blocked by a better organized gun rights movement.
    • However, we cannot rule out the possibility that there is an unorganized majority in some states that would prefer greater decentralization in gun control policymaking, but that is blocked by a better organized gun rights movement.
  • 248
    • 78650540966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Morton Grove's historic gun ban ends: Village's law falls to high court ruling
    • July 29, ("Fighting in court to try to keep the law would cost money the village does not have, officials said.").
    • The Village of Morton Grove, which apparently enacted the first comprehensive municipal handgun prohibition, repealed its law after opponents filed suit in the wake of Heller. See Robert Channick, Morton Grove's Historic Gun Ban Ends: Village's Law Falls to High Court Ruling, CHI. TRIB., July 29, 2008 ("Fighting in court to try to keep the law would cost money the village does not have, officials said.").
    • (2008) Chi. Trib.
    • Channick, R.1
  • 249
    • 78650550474 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Cook, supra note 11, at 18-19
    • See Cook, supra note 11, at 18-19;
  • 250
    • 0036563045 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Weapon effects and individual intent to do harm: Influences on the escalation of violence
    • 287-92
    • William Wells & Julie Homey, Weapon Effects and Individual Intent to Do Harm: Influences on the Escalation of Violence, 40 CRIMINOLOGY 265, 287-92 (2002);
    • (2002) Criminology , vol.40 , pp. 265
    • Wells, W.1    Homey, J.2
  • 251
    • 85048901260 scopus 로고
    • Is gun control likely to reduce violent killings?
    • 735-37
    • Franklin E. Zimring, Is Gun Control Likely to Reduce Violent Killings?, 35 U. CHI. L. REV. 721, 735-37 (1968);
    • (1968) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.35 , pp. 721
    • Zimring, F.E.1
  • 252
    • 0002703546 scopus 로고
    • The Medium Is the Message: Firearm Caliber as a Determinant of Death from Assault
    • Franklin E. Zimring, The Medium Is the Message: Firearm Caliber as a Determinant of Death From Assault, 1 J. LEGAL STUD. 97 (1972).
    • (1972) J. Legal Stud. , vol.1 , pp. 97
    • Zimring, F.E.1
  • 253
    • 0003726235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 106-13 (comparing the United States with other developed nations in terms of violence, both life threatening and not).
    • See FRANKLIN E. ZIMRING &. GORDON HAWKINS, CRIME IS NOT THE PROBLEM: LETHAL VIOLENCE IN AMERICA 51, 106-13 (1997) (comparing the United States with other developed nations in terms of violence, both life threatening and not).
    • (1997) Crime is Not The Problem: Lethal Violence in America , pp. 51
    • Zimring, F.E.1    Hawkins, G.2
  • 254
    • 36549017722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Underground gun markets
    • F589-90 (focusing on Chicago, emphasizing policing practices, and collecting survey data from other cities).
    • See Philip J. Cook, Jens Ludwig, Sudhir Venkatesh & Anthony A. Braga, Underground Gun Markets, 117 ECON. J. F588, F589-90 (2007) (focusing on Chicago, emphasizing policing practices, and collecting survey data from other cities).
    • (2007) Econ. J. , vol.117
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2    Venkatesh, S.3    Braga, A.A.4
  • 255
    • 78650532521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 34, 35-36
    • See COOK & LUDWIG, supra note 32, at 34, 35-36
  • 256
    • 0000898040 scopus 로고
    • The effect of gun availability on robbery and robbery rates: A cross section study of 50 cities
    • 743-81
    • (citing Philip J. Cook, The Effect of Gun Availability on Robbery and Robbery Rates: A Cross Section Study of 50 Cities, 3 POL'Y STUD. ANN. REV. 743, 743-81 (1979)).
    • (1979) Pol'y Stud. Ann. Rev. , vol.3 , pp. 743
    • Cook, P.J.1
  • 257
    • 78650570187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Azrael et al., supra note 16
    • See Azrael et al., supra note 16;
  • 258
    • 0345737001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Measures of gun ownership levels for macrolevel crime and violence research
    • 8
    • Gary Kleck, Measures of Gun Ownership Levels for Macrolevel Crime and Violence Research, 41 J. RES. CRIME &. DELlNQ. 3, 8 (2004).
    • (2004) J. Res. Crime &. Delinq. , vol.41 , pp. 3
    • Kleck, G.1
  • 259
    • 1642633946 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does gun prevalence affect teen gun carrying after all?
    • 36
    • See Philip J. Cook & Jens Ludwig, Does Gun Prevalence Affect Teen Gun Carrying After All?, 42 CRIMINOLOGY 27, 36 (2004);
    • (2004) Criminology , vol.42 , pp. 27
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2
  • 260
    • 78650528429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook & Ludwig, supra note 10, at 387-88 (connecting the proxy for county-level gun prevalence to overall homicide rates).
    • Cook & Ludwig, supra note 10, at 387-88 (connecting the proxy for county-level gun prevalence to overall homicide rates).
  • 262
    • 50949118722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guns and suicide in the United States
    • 990
    • Matthew Miller & David Hemenway, Guns and Suicide in the United States, 359 NEW ENG. J. MED. 989, 990 (2008);
    • (2008) New Eng. J. Med. , vol.359 , pp. 989
    • Miller, M.1    Hemenway, D.2
  • 263
    • 34247183169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Household firearm ownership and rates of suicide across the 50 United States
    • Matthew Miller et al., Household Firearm Ownership and Rates of Suicide Across the 50 United States, 62 J. TRAUMA, INJ., INFECTION & CRITICAL CARE 1029 (2007).
    • (2007) J. Trauma, Inj., Infection & Critical Care , vol.62 , pp. 1029
    • Miller, M.1
  • 264
    • 78650547174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See HEMENWAY, supra note 45, at 66-69 (pointing to a large difference between assertions of some, gun proponents and results from the National Crime Victimization Survey, which posed open questions to people who had actually reported an incident).
    • See HEMENWAY, supra note 45, at 66-69 (pointing to a large difference between assertions of some, gun proponents and results from the National Crime Victimization Survey, which posed open questions to people who had actually reported an incident).
  • 266
    • 78650566234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 102-04.
    • See id. at 102-04.
  • 267
    • 78650557585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Murder rate raises concern
    • Apr. 28
    • Matthew Cella, Murder Rate Raises Concern, WASH. TIMES, Apr. 28, 2003, at B01.
    • (2003) Wash. Times
    • Cella, M.1
  • 268
    • 78650546543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Op-Ed, homicide: Will the shake-up help!
    • Sept. 28, (asserting that Newsweek coined the term with respect to D.C. in 1941).
    • But cf. Vance Garnett, Op-Ed, Homicide: Will the Shake-Up Help!, WASH. POST, Sept. 28, 1997, at C08 (asserting that Newsweek coined the term with respect to D.C. in 1941).
    • (1997) Wash. Post
    • Garnett, V.1
  • 269
    • 0025938892 scopus 로고
    • Effects of restrictive licensing of handguns on homicide and suicide in the district of Columbia
    • 1616-17
    • See Colin Loftin et al., Effects of Restrictive Licensing of Handguns on Homicide and Suicide in the District of Columbia, 32.5 NEW ENG. J. MED. 1615, 1616-17 (1991).
    • (1991) New Eng. J. Med. , vol.325 , pp. 1615
    • Loftin, C.1
  • 270
    • 78650581983 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 271
    • 0040749806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A reassessment of the D.C. gun law: Some cautionary notes on the use of interrupted time series designs for policy impact assessment
    • See Chester L. Britt et al., A Reassessment of the D.C. Gun Law: Some Cautionary Notes on the Use of Interrupted Time Series Designs for Policy Impact Assessment, 30 L. & SOC'Y REV. 361 (1996).
    • (1996) L. & Soc'y Rev. , vol.30 , pp. 361
    • Britt, C.L.1
  • 272
    • 0040749805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Using quosi-experiments to evaluate firearms laws: Comment on Britt et al's reassessment of the D.C. gun law
    • See David McDowall et al., Using Quosi-Experiments to Evaluate Firearms Laws: Comment on Britt et al's Reassessment of the D.C. Gun Law, 30 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 381 (1996).
    • (1996) Law & Soc'y Rev. , vol.30 , pp. 381
    • McDowall, D.1
  • 273
    • 33745782539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The effects of the brady act on gun violence
    • Bernard E. Harcourt ed.
    • See also Philip J. Cook & Jens Ludwig, The Effects of the Brady Act on Gun Violence, in GUNS, CRIME, AND PUNISHMENT IN AMERICA 28.3, 294 (Bernard E. Harcourt ed., 2003).
    • (2003) Guns, Crime, and Punishment in America , pp. 283
    • Cook, P.J.1    Ludwig, J.2
  • 274
    • 78650563927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ILL. CTR. FOR HEALTH STATISTICS, ILL. DEP'T OF PUB. HEALTH 127
    • See ILL. CTR. FOR HEALTH STATISTICS, ILL. DEP'T OF PUB. HEALTH, VITAL STATISTICS ILLINOIS 2002, at 95, 127 (2006), available at http://www.idph.state. il.us/pdf/2002-Vital-Statistics-Illinois.pdf.
    • (2006) Vital Statistics Illinois 2002 , pp. 95
  • 275
    • 78650531867 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cook et al., supra note 191, at F598, F601-02
    • See Cook et al., supra note 191, at F598, F601-02.
  • 276
    • 78650548489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Figure 1 presents five-year averages for the percentage of suicides committed with guns, a proxy for household gun ownership rates. See supra notes 193-194
    • Figure 1 presents five-year averages for the percentage of suicides committed with guns, a proxy for household gun ownership rates. See supra notes 193-194.
  • 277
    • 78650574851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Figure 2 presents five-year averages for the percentage of suicides committed with guns, a proxy for household gun ownership rates. See supra notes 193-194
    • Figure 2 presents five-year averages for the percentage of suicides committed with guns, a proxy for household gun ownership rates. See supra notes 193-194.
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    • 16.5 U.S. 275, 281-82
    • See Robertson v. Baldwin, 16.5 U.S. 275, 281-82 (1897) ("Thus, the freedom of speech and of the press (article 1) does not permit the publication of libels, blasphemous or indecent articles, or other publications injurious to public morals or private reputation; the right of the people to keep and bear arms (article 2) is not infringed by laws prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons....").
    • (1897) Robertson v. Baldwin
  • 280
    • 78650551419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 2809, 2818
    • See id. at 2809, 2818.
  • 281
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    • 5 La. Ann. 489, 490
    • State v. Chandler, 5 La. Ann. 489, 490 (1850).
    • (1850) State v. Chandler
  • 282
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    • Concealed weapons laws taking hold, broadening across U.S
    • Mar. 2
    • See John A. Dvorak, Concealed Weapons Laws Taking Hold, Broadening Across U.S., KAN. CITY STAR, Mar. 2, 2002 (Domestic News).
    • (2002) Kan. City Star
    • Dvorak, J.A.1
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    • 392 U.S. 1, 30-31
    • It is possible that law enforcement officers' stop-and-frisk authority
    • (1968) Terry v. Ohio
  • 284
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    • Second amendment plumbing after Heller: Of standards of scrutiny, incorporation, well regulated militias, and criminal street gangs
    • 37-48
    • Lawrence Rosenthal, Second Amendment Plumbing After Heller: Of Standards of Scrutiny, Incorporation, Well Regulated Militias, and Criminal Street Gangs, 41 URB. LAW. 1, 37-48 (2009) (raising concerns about the potential effects of an extension of Heller). However, Terry stops might often be justified on alternative grounds not necessarily related to illegal gun possession, such as suspicion of drug crimes or even curfew violations. Before confidently predicting the implications of extending Heller for stop-and-frisk tactics, we need to know how often alternative grounds for a stop are available, and whether substantive criminal law might be expanded to generate those grounds. These kinds of adjustments would not be shocking in the field of law enforcement. In any event, the officer safety justification for the stop-and-frisk doctrine seems adequate to preserve pat downs and weapons seizures during certain police-citizen encounters regardless of whether police suspect unlawful or lawful gun possession.
    • (2009) Urb. Law , vol.41 , pp. 1
    • Rosenthal, L.1
  • 285
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    • note
    • See Terry, 392 U.S. at 23-24, 29-30. Nor should we assume that, if Heller were, extended to public places, Terry doctrine will remain static. However, a remaining hitch for police officers might be their authority to keep seized weapons at the end of a street encounter if the citizen is not arrested, lawfully possesses the firearm, and asks for the weapon back on the spot. These interchanges might be risky for police officers, and yet a right to demand immediate return of the weapon could follow from a broad view of the Second Amendment.
  • 286
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    • WRIGHT & Rossi, supra note 27, at 145
    • WRIGHT & Rossi, supra note 27, at 145.
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    • See id. at 147
    • See id. at 147.
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    • U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE
    • See MICHAEL R. RAND, U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATION, 2007, at 6 (2008), available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cv07.pdf (reporting, as well, that offenders used firearms in 7.1 percent of all violent crimes in 2007).
    • (2008) Criminal Victimization, 2007 , pp. 6
    • Rand, M.R.1
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    • note
    • The policy analysis is complicated by the choice between rights to carry concealed as opposed to unconcealed weapons outside the home. If people have a right to carry handguns in public but the government mandates unconcealed carry for those who choose to do so, then potential aggressors would receive, reliable information regarding which would-be victims are most vulnerable. Not seeing a handgun would be closer to knowing that a person is not carrying one. Of course, it could be that unconcealed carry mandates cannot be effectively enforced. Nevertheless, such a regime of rights and regulations (public carry with mandatory nonconcealment) could be meaningfully different from a regime in which people have a legal right to choose whether or not to conceal the handguns that they choose to carry in public (public carry with optional concealment)-or in which government mandates concealment for any person otherwise entitled to possess a handgun in public (public carry with mandatory concealment). Each combination probably has different informational effects.
  • 290
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    • LOTT, supra note 78, at 115
    • See LOTT, supra note 78, at 115;
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    • Crime, deterrence and right-to-carry concealed handgwis
    • John R. Lott & David B. Mustard, Crime, Deterrence and Right-To-Carry Concealed Handgwis, 26 J. LEGAL STUD. 1 (1997).
    • (1997) J. Legal Stud. , vol.26 , pp. 1
    • Lott, J.R.1    Mustard, D.B.2
  • 293
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    • See id. at 312-13
    • See id. at 312-13.
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    • Shooting doum the "more guns, less crime" hypothesis
    • See generally Ian Ayres & John J. Donohue, Shooting Doum the "More Guns, Less Crime" Hypothesis, 55 STAN. L. REV. 1193 (2003).
    • (2003) Stan. L. Rev. , vol.55 , pp. 1193
    • Ayres, I.1    Donohue, J.J.2
  • 295
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    • Cook & Ludwig, supra note 11, at 725 (citing J.M. Hill, The Impact of Liberalized Concealed Weapon Statutes on Rates of Violent Crime (1997) (unpublished senior thesis, Duke University, Public Policy) (on file with authors))
    • See Cook & Ludwig, supra note 11, at 725 (citing J.M. Hill, The Impact of Liberalized Concealed Weapon Statutes on Rates of Violent Crime (1997) (unpublished senior thesis, Duke University, Public Policy) (on file with authors)).
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    • Cook & Ludwig, supra note 11, at 726 (citing Hill, supra note 222)
    • See Cook & Ludwig, supra note 11, at 726 (citing Hill, supra note 222).
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    • NAT'L CTR. FOR POLICY ANALYSIS (reporting that concealed carry licensees in Texas had lower arrest rates than the rest of the population)
    • See H. STERLING BURNETT, NAT'L CTR. FOR POLICY ANALYSIS, TEXAS CONCEALED HANDGUN CARRIERS: LAW-ABIDING PUBLIC BENEFACTORS 1 (2000), available at http://www.ncpa.org/pdfs/ba324.pdf (reporting that concealed carry licensees in Texas had lower arrest rates than the rest of the population).
    • (2000) Texas Concealed Handgun Carriers: Law-abiding Public Benefactors , pp. 1
    • Sterling Burnett, H.1
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    • Litigant sensitivity in first amendment law
    • 1294
    • See Adam M. Samaha, Litigant Sensitivity in First Amendment Law, 98 NW. U. L REV. 1291, 1294 (2004).
    • (2004) Nw. U. L Rev. , vol.98 , pp. 1291
    • Samaha, A.M.1
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    • See id. at 1317-18, 1355-71 (identifying situations when claimant conduct matters to First Amendment doctrine and its functions)
    • See id. at 1317-18, 1355-71 (identifying situations when claimant conduct matters to First Amendment doctrine and its functions).
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    • 128 S. Q. 2783, 2790-91, 2797, 2799, 2805, 2812, 2817 n.27, 2821
    • See District of Columbia v. Heller, 128 S. Q. 2783, 2790-91, 2797, 2799, 2805, 2812, 2817 n.27, 2821 (2008) (connecting First and Second Amendment text, history, and judicial treatment).
    • (2008) District of Columbia v. Heller
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    • 460 U.S. 575, 577-79, 588-91
    • See Minneapolis Star & Tribune. Co. v. Minn. Comm'r of Revenue, 460 U.S. 575, 577-79, 588-91 (1983) (expressing concern that judges will not be able to calculate tax burdens); id. at 597-98 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting) (comparing liability under the sales tax). To be fair to the majority, the sales tax was not necessarily the correct baseline for comparison. Exemptions to the paper-and-ink tax meant that only a few large newspapers paid the tax.
    • (1983) Minneapolis Star & Tribune. Co. v. Minn. Comm'r of Revenue
  • 304
  • 305
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    • See supra note 138
    • See supra note 138.
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    • Pub. L No. 254, § 900(10), 40 Stat. 1058, 1122 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 26 U.S.C)
    • See Revenue Act of 1918, Pub. L No. 254, § 900(10), 40 Stat. 1058, 1122 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 26 U.S.C).
    • Revenue Act of 1918
  • 308
    • 78650554753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alcohol & Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau, Dep't of the Treasury, Tax and Fee Rate (last visited May 23, 2009)
    • See Alcohol & Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau, Dep't of the Treasury, Tax and Fee Rate, http://www.ttb.gov/tax-audit/atftaxes.shtml (last visited May 23, 2009). Ordinary wine is taxed at only 21/bottle. See id.
  • 309
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    • See Cook & Ludwig, supra note 10, at 390
    • See Cook & Ludwig, supra note 10, at 390.
  • 310
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    • Liability insurance & the regulation of firearms
    • supra note 92 299
    • Liability insurance, is an alternative mechanism for the internalization of externalities associated with gun ownership. A standard homeowners' insurance policy ordinarily covers liability for accidents involving guns, but often has an exemption for intentional harms, or even for harms resulting from criminal acts. See Tom Baker & Thomas O. Farrish, Liability Insurance & the Regulation of Firearms, in SUING THE GUN INDUSTRY, supra note 92, at 292, 299;
    • Suing the Gun Industry , pp. 292
    • Baker, T.1    Farrish, T.O.2
  • 311
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    • Liability insurance at the Tort-crime boudary
    • D.M. Engle & M. McCann eds., forthcoming (manuscript at 7)
    • Tom Baker, Liability Insurance at the Tort-Crime Boudary, in FAULT LINES: TORT LAW AND CULTURAL PRACTICE (D.M. Engle & M. McCann eds., forthcoming 2009) (manuscript at 7), available at http://papers.ssni.com/soB/papers.cfm? abstract-id=1314309. It is not clear how far liability or liability coverage extends for cases in which the gun is transferred by the owner to someone else, or is stolen, and then misused. To the best of our knowledge, no states or localities require gun owners to obtain such insurance. The threat of litigation following Heller could stifle local experiments with such policies.
    • (2009) Fault Lines: Tort Law and Cultural Practice
    • Baker, T.1
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    • Relationship between licensing, Registration and other gun sales laws and the source state of crime guns
    • The public safety consequence of repealing licensing and registration systems is a bit unclear based on available evidence. These systems do provide information regarding who owns which guns, infonnation that could prove useful to law enforcement investigations. The most vivid example is in the future. The California law requiring pistols sold after 2010 to have micro-stamp capability will be more useful if the state is allowed to continue handgun registration; the regulatory combination should help investigators connect shell casings found at the scene of a crime to the current or recent owner of the gun. Unfortunately, evaluation of existing state-level licensing and registration systems is forced to rely on weak research designs, yielding evidence for regulatory impact on immediate output measures but not on outcomes of more direct policy interest. For example, D.W. Webster et al., Relationship Between Licensing, Registration and Other Gun Sales Laws and the Source State of Crime Guns, 7 INJ. PREVENTION 184 (2001), finds some effect of licensing and registration requirements on the fraction of confiscated crime guns that were first purchased out of state. See id. at 188. How informative this is about the ease with which criminals can obtain guns, or ultimately the overall rate of gun crime within a community, is unclear. A study of the federal Brady Act suggests the ability of the secondary gun market to shift, and at least partially offset, changes to the supply side of the market. After the Brady Act was enacted, Chicago experienced a large, drop in the share of crime guns first sold out of state, yet the fraction of homicides committed with a gun did not seem to change at all.
    • (2001) Inj. Prevention , vol.7 , pp. 184
    • Webster, D.W.1
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    • Cook & Braga, supra note 27, at 304-07
    • See Cook & Braga, supra note 27, at 304-07;
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    • The economics of smoking
    • 1546-56 Anthony J. Culyer & Joseph P. Newhouse eds.
    • See Frank J. Chaloupka &. Kenneth E. Warner, The Economics of Smoking, in IB HANDBOOK OF HEALTH ECONOMICS 1539, 1546-56 (Anthony J. Culyer & Joseph P. Newhouse eds., 2000) (reviewing studies for the proposition that monetary price increases tend to reduce cigarette demand, despite the product's addictive qualities).
    • (2000) IB Handbook of Health Economics , pp. 1539
    • Chaloupka, F.J.1    Warner, K.E.2
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    • "Perversity, futility, jeopardy": An economic analysis of the attack on gun control
    • Winter 104-05 fig.2
    • See Philip J. Cook & James A. Leitzel, "Perversity, Futility, Jeopardy": An Economic Analysis of the Attack on Gun Control, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Winter 1996, at 91, 104-05 fig.2.
    • (1996) Law & Contemp. Probs. , pp. 91
    • Cook, P.J.1    Leitzel, J.A.2
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    • Trouble on track two: Incidental regulations of speech and free speech theory
    • 943
    • See, e.g., Larry A. Alexander, Trouble on Track Two: Incidental Regulations of Speech and Free Speech Theory, 44 HASTINGS L.J. 921, 943 (1993).
    • (1993) Hastings L.J. , vol.44 , pp. 921
    • Alexander, L.A.1
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    • 494 U.S. 872, 889-91
    • See Employment Div. v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872, 889-91 (1990).
    • (1990) Employment Div. v. Smith
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    • 80-86
    • See, e.g., FREDERICK SCHAUER, FREE SPEECH: A PHILOSOPHICAL ENQUIRY 43-44, 80-86 (1982) (suggesting regulation might be distrusted more than speech is especially valued).
    • (1982) Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry , pp. 43-44
    • Schauer, F.1
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    • 3d ed.
    • See, e.g., KATHLEEN M. SULLIVAN & GERALD GÜNTHER, FIRST AMENDMENT LAW 204-0.5 (3d ed. 2007). There are other theories that might support anti-targeting themes and yet still weaken the case for substantial burdens tests; perhaps a targeted burden amounts to a special form of injury.
    • (2007) First Amendment Law , pp. 204-205
    • Sullivan, K.M.1    Günther, G.2
  • 321
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    • See supra Part II.A
    • See supra Part II.A.
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    • Samaha, supra note 158, at 631-33, 662-67 (discussing coordination theories of authority for our constitutional text). A provocative argument for valuing constitutional debate precisely for its ability to combat entrenchment is LOUIS MICHAEL SEIDMAN, OUR UNSETTLED CONSTITUTION: A NEW DEFENSE OF CONSTITUTIONALISM AND JUDICIAL REVIEW 55, 210-16 (2001). In this regard, consider that Heller effectively disrupted a status quo in judicial review against Second Amendment claims.
    • (2001) Our Unsettled Constitution: A New Defense of Constitutionalism and Judicial Review , vol.55 , pp. 210-216
    • Seidman, L.M.1
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    • See supra note 118
    • See supra note 118.
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    • 128 S. Ct. 2641, 2664-65
    • See, e.g., Kennedy v. Louisiana, 128 S. Ct. 2641, 2664-65 (2008).
    • (2008) Kennedy v. Louisiana
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    • See supra text accompanying notes 144-152
    • See supra text accompanying notes 144-152.
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    • supra Part I.C.1-I.C.4
    • See supra Part I.C.1-I.C.4.
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    • Undue process
    • 608-09, 667-68
    • See supra note 4. It is possible that the Senate's commitment to supermajority votes for cloture against filibusters led this simple majority of Congress members to prefer constitutional litigation to ordinary legislation. If so, the shift to litigation is a consequence of the legislators' own institutional design choices. On constitutional objections to the filibuster, see Adam M. Samaha, Undue Process, 59 STAN. L. REV. 601, 608-09, 667-68 (2006).
    • (2006) Stan. L. Rev. , vol.59 , pp. 601
    • Samaha, A.M.1
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    • See supra note 88
    • See supra note 88.
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    • Nat'l Rifle. Ass'n Inst. for Legislative Action June 26
    • See Nat'l Rifle. Ass'n Inst. for Legislative Action, Supreme Court Declares That the Second Amendment Guarantees an Individual Right to Keep and Bear Arms (June 26, 2008), http://www.nraila.org/heller ("All law-abiding Americans have a fundamental, God-given right to defend themselves in their homes. Washington, D.C. must now respect that right").
    • (2008) Supreme Court Declares That the Second Amendment Guarantees An Individual Right to Keep and Bear Arms
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    • Cf. Nat'l Ass'n for Gun Rights July 29
    • Cf. Nat'l Ass'n for Gun Rights, The Ugly Truth About the Heller Decision (July 29, 2008), http://www.nationalgunrights.org/truthaboutheller.shtml (exhorting supporters to fuel progun lobbying efforts because, "liberals are using [Heller] to restrict our gun rights," and criticizing the decision for recognizing longstanding prohibitions on certain types of gun use).
    • (2008) The Ugly Truth about the Heller Decision


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.