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Volumn 24, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 307-335

Lives in the balance? Gender, age and assets in late-nineteenth-century England and Wales

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; GENDER; NINETEENTH CENTURY;

EID: 72449168462     PISSN: 02684160     EISSN: 1469218X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S026841600900719X     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (20)

References (116)
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    • Rubinstein has responded to various of his critics: see W. D. Rubinstein, 'Gentlemanly capitalism and British industry, 1820-1914: a comment', Past and Present 132 (1991), 150-69;
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    • This estimate is based on the number of persons who died aged 21 or above compared to the number of probated estates in the year ending 31 March 1898. The figures come from the Registrar General's Sixty-first annual report (1898), 120 and the Commissioners of the Inland Revenue, Forty-first report for the year ending 31 March 1898 (1898), 147. The figure for 1858 was very similar
    • This estimate is based on the number of persons who died aged 21 or above compared to the number of probated estates in the year ending 31 March 1898. The figures come from the Registrar General's Sixty-first annual report (1898), 120 and the Commissioners of the Inland Revenue, Forty-first report for the year ending 31 March 1898 (1898), 147. The figure for 1858 was very similar.
  • 27
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    • See also London, In theory anyone with personal property or bona notabilia worth £5 or more was required to file for probate
    • See also K. Grannum and N. Taylor, Wills and other probate records (London, 2004), 62-3. In theory anyone with personal property or bona notabilia worth £5 or more was required to file for probate.
    • (2004) Wills and Other Probate Records , pp. 62-63
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    • and Cambridge, Morris in particular equates property ownership with middle-class status;
    • and D. Wahrman, Imagining the middle class (Cambridge, 1995). Morris in particular equates property ownership with middle-class status;
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    • The following information is taken from the 1851 census enumerator's books and from The general and commercial directory of Birmingham (1856)
    • The following information is taken from the 1851 census enumerator's books and from The general and commercial directory of Birmingham (1856).
  • 34
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    • Birmingham Daily Post, 16 July 1866. In the 1850s Thomas Webster suggested that a household income of between £250 and £300 per annum was sufficient to employ two female domestic servants; see Thomas Webster, An encyclopaedia of domestic economy (London, 1852), 331. The cost of servants also depended on alternative sources of female employment. In some northern towns with large amounts of factory work, female servants could command relatively high wages and the proportion of families able to employ one was therefore limited
    • Birmingham Daily Post, 16 July 1866. In the 1850s Thomas Webster suggested that a household income of between £250 and £300 per annum was sufficient to employ two female domestic servants; see Thomas Webster, An encyclopaedia of domestic economy (London, 1852), 331. The cost of servants also depended on alternative sources of female employment. In some northern towns with large amounts of factory work, female servants could command relatively high wages and the proportion of families able to employ one was therefore limited.
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    • The will of Isaac Robert Mott, proved in the Principal Registry 23rd September 1879
    • The will of Isaac Robert Mott, proved in the Principal Registry 23rd September 1879.
  • 39
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    • The will of James Mott, proved in the Birmingham registry, 11 August 1927
    • The will of James Mott, proved in the Birmingham registry, 11 August 1927.
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    • See also Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder papers, MS/864/H/15c.
    • See also Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder papers, MS/864/H/15c.
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    • Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder papers, MS/884/H/11a. The census of that year records the head of household as Kate Brown, Herbert's widow
    • Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder papers, MS/884/H/11a. The census of that year records the head of household as Kate Brown, Herbert's widow.
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    • These are recorded in his account book held in the Birmingham City Archives (Lee Crowder papers, HO/864/42
    • These are recorded in his account book held in the Birmingham City Archives (Lee Crowder papers, HO/864/42).
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    • For each year between 1880 and 1927 the account book contains a listing of the amount paid and the market worth of each of his investments held on 1 January
    • For each year between 1880 and 1927 the account book contains a listing of the amount paid and the market worth of each of his investments held on 1 January.
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    • Consumer price inflation since 1750
    • During this period consumer prices remained virtually unchanged. See
    • During this period consumer prices remained virtually unchanged. See J. O'Donoghue, L. Goulding and G. Allen, 'Consumer price inflation since 1750', Economic Trends 604 (2004), 38-46.
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    • See 6 July
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    • Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder Papers, MS 864/H/16: letter from Harry S. Brown to James Mott, 13 November 1915
    • Birmingham City Archives, Lee Crowder Papers, MS 864/H/16: letter from Harry S. Brown to James Mott, 13 November 1915.
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    • The will of James Mott, 11 August 1927
    • The will of James Mott, 11 August 1927.
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    • The final balance: Reconstructing wealth portfolios from death duty records in England and Wales, 1870-1930
    • For further discussion of sources and methodology see, Working Paper 2, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, London, available at
    • For further discussion of sources and methodology see A. Owens, D. R. Green, C. Swan, S. Ainscough, C. van Lieshout, J. Maltby, C. van Mourik and J. Rutterford, 'The final balance: reconstructing wealth portfolios from death duty records in England and Wales, 1870-1930', Working Paper 2 'Women investors in England and Wales, 1870-1930', funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (London, 2008), available at http//:www.womeninvestors.org.uk.
    • (2008) Women Investors in England and Wales, 1870-1930
    • Owens, A.1    Green, D.R.2    Swan, C.3    Ainscough, S.4    Van Lieshout, C.5    Maltby, J.6    Van Mourik, C.7    Rutterford, J.8
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    • Probate valuations and the death duty registers: Some comments
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    • The National Archives, Kew, IR19, Board of Stamps: Legacy Duty Office and successors: Specimens of Death Duty Account, 1796 - 1903
    • The National Archives, Kew, IR19, Board of Stamps: Legacy Duty Office and successors: Specimens of Death Duty Account, 1796 - 1903.
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    • A measure of worth: Probate valuations, personal wealth and in indebtedness in England, 1810-40
    • Although this article focuses on the period after 1870, the authors are also analysing accounts for earlier in the century; for some preliminary analysis see A small number of additional Residuary Accounts relating to the estates of famous individuals - writers, artists, politicians and so on - can be found within the IR59 class of records at the National Archives, Kew; they are not included in the analysis in this article
    • Although this article focuses on the period after 1870, the authors are also analysing accounts for earlier in the century; for some preliminary analysis see A. Owens, D. R. Green, C. Bailey and A. Kay, 'A measure of worth: probate valuations, personal wealth and in indebtedness in England, 1810-40', Historical Research 79, 305 (2006), 383-403. A small number of additional Residuary Accounts relating to the estates of famous individuals - writers, artists, politicians and so on - can be found within the IR59 class of records at the National Archives, Kew; they are not included in the analysis in this article.
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    • Our investigations suggest that when the sample was selected for preservation (sometime in the early to mid-twentieth century) an effort was made to select different letter clusters of papers based on the decedent's surname. We excluded the estates of Josiah Heap (aged 65) and John Du Pre (aged 92) from the analysis in this article. The net values of their estates were £284,650 and £245,367 respectively and together they comprised over 7 per cent of the total net value of estates in our sample. Inclusion of these extremely wealthy individuals would have significantly distorted the overall average holdings
    • Our investigations suggest that when the sample was selected for preservation (sometime in the early to mid-twentieth century) an effort was made to select different letter clusters of papers based on the decedent's surname. We excluded the estates of Josiah Heap (aged 65) and John Du Pre (aged 92) from the analysis in this article. The net values of their estates were £284,650 and £245,367 respectively and together they comprised over 7 per cent of the total net value of estates in our sample. Inclusion of these extremely wealthy individuals would have significantly distorted the overall average holdings.
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    • Valuation of some assets, such as shares in non-quoted companies, could be a complicated matter and sometimes involved negotiation with the Inland Revenue
    • Valuation of some assets, such as shares in non-quoted companies, could be a complicated matter and sometimes involved negotiation with the Inland Revenue
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    • The National Archives, Kew, IR26, Board of Inland Revenue and predecessors: Estate Duty Office and predecessors: Registers of Legacy Duty, Succession Duty and Estate Duty
    • The National Archives, Kew, IR26, Board of Inland Revenue and predecessors: Estate Duty Office and predecessors: Registers of Legacy Duty, Succession Duty and Estate Duty.
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    • Leasehold estates were liable for Legacy Duty up until 1853, after which time they became liable for Succession Duty instead.
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    • For further debate about the use and interpretation of these sources see
    • For further debate about the use and interpretation of these sources see English, 'Probate valuations';
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    • The net annual yield normally comprised the annual rent that might reasonably be expected minus any expenses such as rates, taxes, repairs or maintenance. See London
    • The net annual yield normally comprised the annual rent that might reasonably be expected minus any expenses such as rates, taxes, repairs or maintenance. See Robert Dymond, The death duties (London, 1931), 459-460
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    • We are grateful to W. D. Rubinstein and F. M. L. Thompson for advice on this matter. An alternative way of conceptualizing the multiplier is to consider it as a percentage return, in which case 30 represents an annual return of approximately 3 per cent on investment. Further discussion of the problem associated with specifying an appropriate multiplier and justification for the one chosen here can be found in London, available at
    • We are grateful to W. D. Rubinstein and F. M. L. Thompson for advice on this matter. An alternative way of conceptualizing the multiplier is to consider it as a percentage return, in which case 30 represents an annual return of approximately 3 per cent on investment. Further discussion of the problem associated with specifying an appropriate multiplier and justification for the one chosen here can be found in A. Owens and D. R. Green, 'Deriving real estate values from the IR26 Death Duty Registers', training manual, 'Women Investors in England and Wales, 1870-1930' (London, 2009), available at http://www. womeninvestors.org.uk.
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    • Estimates of the realisable wealth of the United Kingdom basd mostly on estate duty returns
    • This is also the opinion expressed in
    • This is also the opinion expressed in W. Harris and K. A. Lake, 'Estimates of the realisable wealth of the United Kingdom basd mostly on estate duty returns', Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 69 (1906), 723-724
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    • The strict definition of settled property was that it was limited to or in trust for persons by way of succession. See
    • The strict definition of settled property was that it was limited to or in trust for persons by way of succession. See Dymond, The death duties, 13-23.
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    • To do the right thing: Gender, wealth, inheritance and the London middle class
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    • D. R. Green, 'To do the right thing: gender, wealth, inheritance and the London middle class', in A. Laurence, J. Maltby and J. Rutterford eds., Women and their money 1700-1950 (London, 2009), 144.
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    • Men, women, and property: The reform of the married women's property act 1870
    • point see F. M. L. Thompson ed., Oxford
    • On this point see R. J. Morris, 'Men, women, and property: the reform of the Married Women's Property Act 1870', in F. M. L. Thompson ed., Landowners, capitalists, and entrepreneurs: essays for Sir John Habakkuk (Oxford, 1994), 171-191
    • (1994) Landowners, Capitalists, and Entrepreneurs: Essays for Sir John Habakkuk , pp. 171-191
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    • For a wider discussion of trusts and trustees in Victorian Britain see
    • For a wider discussion of trusts and trustees in Victorian Britain see Stebbings, The private trustee.
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    • Art, death and taxes: The taxation of works of art in Britain, 1796-1914
    • This was not the case for settled personalty, such as heirlooms and works of art, which were liable for duty at each succession. On this see
    • This was not the case for settled personalty, such as heirlooms and works of art, which were liable for duty at each succession. On this see P. Mandler, 'Art, death and taxes: the taxation of works of art in Britain, 1796-1914', Historical Research 74, 185 (2001), 271-297
    • (2001) Historical Research , vol.74 , Issue.185 , pp. 271-297
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    • Dymond's The death duties is a useful guide to the complexities of assessing estates for inheritance tax
    • Dymond's The death duties is a useful guide to the complexities of assessing estates for inheritance tax.
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    • Life after death: How successful nineteenth-century businessmen disposed of their fortunes
    • Previous studies include, for example
    • Previous studies include, for example, F. M. L. Thompson, 'Life after death: how successful nineteenth-century businessmen disposed of their fortunes', Economic History Review 43, 1 (1990), 40-61;
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    • Principles and prospects of the life course paradigm
    • For discussion of the life-course approach see, Further research will investigate the significance of the life course for selected individuals, tracing household characteristics using the census enumerator's books. Indexes to births, deaths and marriages were published quarterly by the General Register Office from 1837 onwards. These indexes have been digitized and are available from
    • For discussion of the life-course approach see J. Kok, 'Principles and prospects of the life course paradigm', Annales de Démographie Historique 1, 1 (2007), 203-230 Further research will investigate the significance of the life course for selected individuals, tracing household characteristics using the census enumerator's books. Indexes to births, deaths and marriages were published quarterly by the General Register Office from 1837 onwards. These indexes have been digitized and are available from http:// www.ancestry.co.uk.
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    • This point is the currently the subject of ongoing research by the authors
    • This point is the currently the subject of ongoing research by the authors.
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    • The gap in the mid-1890s is a consequence of a fire in the Estate Duty Office which led to the destruction of papers for those years
    • The gap in the mid-1890s is a consequence of a fire in the Estate Duty Office which led to the destruction of papers for those years.
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    • See, for example, A. B. Atkinson, 'The distribution of wealth and the individual life-cycle', Oxford Economic Papers 23 (1971), 239-54;
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