Providing for European-level diplomacy after Lisbon: The case of the European external action service

The Hague Journal of Diplomacy

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 211-233

  Duke, Simon ^a  

^a Institut Europeacute en d'Administration Publique   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Council secretariat; Delegations; European commission; European diplomacy; European external action service (eeas); European union; External relations; Foreign policy; High representative; Lisbon treaty; President of the European Council

Indexed keywords

EID: 72449141558     PISSN: 18711901     EISSN: 1871191X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/187119109X440915     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. There are numerous references to consistency in the treaty establishing the European Union. In the field of external relations, the main reference is to Article 3, as follows: 'The Union shall in particular ensure the consistency of its external activities as a whole in the context of its external relations, security, economic and development policies. The Council and the Commission shall be responsible for ensuring such consistency and shall cooperate to this end'.
2. See S. Duke, 'Areas of Grey: Tensions in EU External Relations Competences', Eipascope, no.1, 2006,pp. 20-26.
3. See the European Convention, The Secretariat, Final Report Working Group VII: External Action, CONV 459/02, Brussels, 16 December 2002, p. 4.
4. Javier Solana, A Secure Europe in a Better World: European Security Strategy, 12 December 2003, available online at "http://www.iss.europa.eu/ uploads/media/solanae.pdf, p. 11.
5. European Council, Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy: Providing Security ina Changing World, 11-12 December 2008.
6. Communication from the Commission to the European Council on Europe in the World-Some Practical Proposals for Greater Coherence, Effectiveness and Visibility, 10325/06, p. 6.
7. Brian Crowe, The European External Action Service: Roadmap for Success (London: Royal Institute for International Affairs, 2008), p. 27.
8. 'European External Action Service on Hold after Irish "No"', Euractiv, 11 July 2008.
9. Ireland was subsequently given 'legal guarantees on the three primary areas of concern' (taxation; security and defence; and the right to life, education and the family). See Presidency Conclusions, Brussels European Council, 17271/08, 11-12 December 2008, p. 2.
10. For an overview of these arguments, see S. Duke, 'Administering EU Foreign Policy after Lisbon: The Case of the EEAS', paper prepared for the EU Consent Workshop, Edinburgh, 16-18 May 2008, available online at "http://www.eipa.eu/en/publications/show/&"tid=1825.
11. Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union (the Lisbon Treaty), Official Journal of the European Union, C115/13, 9 May 2008, Article 27 (3).
12. For more on the institutional implications of Lisbon (or non-Lisbon), see Richard Whitman and Ana Juncos, 'The Lisbon Treaty and the Foreign, Security and Defence Policy: Reforms, Implementation and Consequences of (Non-) Ratification', European Foreign Affairs Review, vol.14, 2009 25-46.
13. See Antonio Missiroli et al., The EU Foreign Service: How to Build a More Effective Common Policy, EPC Working Paper no.28 (Brussels: European Policy Centre, November 2007);
14. and Andreas Maurer and Sarah Reichel, 'The European External Action Service: Elements of a Three Phase Plan', SWP Comments, no.36 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, December 2004).
15. While it is true that, for the moment, the EU institutions are reluctant to discuss the EEAS, there area number of (mainly) former officials who are vocal on the issue and who contributed to the hearing on the EEAS at the European Parliament on 15 March 2005.
16. Official Journal of the European Union, C 117 E/233, 18 May 2006, P6-TA(2005)0205, European External Action Service, 'European Parliament Resolution on the Institutional Aspects of the European External Action Service', 26 May 2005, para. 2.
17. A Constitution for the Union: Opinion of the Commission, Pursuant to Article 48 of the Treaty on European Union, on the Conference of Representatives of the Member States' Governments Convened to Revise the Treaties, COM (2003) 548, Brussels, 17 September 2003, p. 11.
18. European External Action Service, Joint Progress Report to the European Council by the Secretary-General/High Representative and the Commission, Council of the European Union, 9956/05, Brussels,9 June 2005, para. 6. The term 'Foreign Minister' was used in the constitutional treaty prior to the HR/VP adage of the Lisbon Treaty.
19. European External Action Service, Joint Progress Report to the European Council by the Secretary-General/High Representative and the Commission, para. 7.
20. See the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union (the Lisbon Treaty) in Official Journal of the European Union, C115/13, 9 May 2008, Article 27 (3).
21. The consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union (the Lisbon Treaty) in Official Journal of the European Union, C115/13, 9 May 2008, Article 27 (3).
22. 'Issues Paper on the European External Action Service', Joint Progress Report to the European Council by the Secretary-General/High Representative and the Commission, 9 June 2005, para. 8 (emphasis added).
23. ESDP was renamed the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) under the Reform Treaty.
24. This point was generally neglected in the Convention on the Future of Europe, with the exception of the contribution by Michel Barnier and António Vitorino; see Joint external Action Service, CONV839/03, Brussels, 24 June 2003, p. 4.
25. The Nicolaidis group emerged under the Greek Presidency and derives its name from the first chair of the group, Kalypso Nicolaidis. The group carries out a similar function to the Antici and Mertens groups, with specific reference to the Political and Security Committee.
26. See Issues Paper on the European External Action Service, annexe II, para. 12.
27. Calculations by the author based on the 'EU Who is Who'. If one only counts official posts in the External Service, there are around 1,045 staff(including 725 AD). If one included these officials, plus contract staff, seconded national experts and young experts, the number increases to 2,255. There are in addition some 3,155 local staff, making a total of 5,470. On the Council Secretariat side, there are around 160 staff in the Directorate-General External and Politico-Military Affairs (DG-E), while the staff reporting directly or indirectly to the High Representative number around 103, of a total of 263. Depending on who is included as 'staff', the ratio is anything from 4.4:1 to 8.3:1. Information supplied to author, see also online at "http://europa.eu/whoiswho/public/index.cfm?useaction=idea. hierarchy&nodeID=4553.
28. Crowe, The European External Action Service, p. 15.
29. Data from 'EU Who is Who?', 27 March 2008, available online at "http://europa.eu/whoiswho/public/index.cfm?fuseaction=idea. hierachy&nodeID=4553.
30. See "http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Europa/Aussenpolitik/ EAD.html.
31. 'European Parliament Resolution on the Institutional Aspects of the European External Action Service', 26 May 2005, PA-TA(2005)0205, Official Journal of the European Union, C 117 E/232, 18 May 2006 (emphasis added).
32. For further discussion of these and other ideas, see Missiroli et al., The EU Foreign Service.
33. Figures from Eberhard Rhein, 'A Fresh Look at EU Common Foreign and Security Policy', Challenge Europe, 13 February 2002, available online at "http://www.theepc.be/challenge.
34. Final Act, Lisbon Treaty, Declarations concerning Provisions of the Treaties, Declarations 13-14 on the Common Foreign and Security Policy, 2007/C 306/02.
35. Maurer and Reichel, 'The European External Action Service', p. 5.
36. The use of the term 'ambassador' is extremely sensitive and may be used by the current heads of mission as a courtesy title, although it may not be insisted upon. See 'Protocol on the Privileges and Immunities of the European Union', Official Journal of the European Union, C 310/261, 16 December 2004.
37. Graham Avery, 'Europe's Future Foreign Service', The International Spectator, vol.43, no.1, p. 36.
38. Antonio Missiroli, 'Introduction: A Tale of Two Pillars -and an Arch', in Missiroli et al., The EU Foreign Service, p. 23.
39. Official Journal of the European Union, C 117 E/232, P6-TA(2005)0205, 'European Parliament Resolution on the Institutional Aspects of the European External Action Service', 18 May 2006, para. 3 (d).
40. See the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union, Official Journal of the European Union, C115/13, 9 May 2008, article 33.
41. See Michel Barnier, For a European Civil Protection Force: Europe Aid, May 2006, available online at"http://ec.europa.eu/commission-barroso/ president/pdf/rapport-barnier-en.pdf.
42. Crowe, The European External Action Service, p. 24.
43. 'Draft Report from the Council to the European Parliament on the Main Aspects and Choices of the Common Foreign and Security Policy', Committee on Foreign Affairs (Rapporteur: Jacek Saryusz-Wolski), 2007/2219(INI), para. 49.
44. 'Draft Report on the Impact of the Treaty of Lisbon on the Development of the Institutional Balanceof the European Union', Committee on Constitutional Affairs (Rapporteur: Jean-Luc Dehaene), 2008/2073 (INI), para. 56.
45. 'Draft Report from the Council to the European Parliament on the Main Aspects and Choices of the Common Foreign and Security Policy', Committee on Foreign Affairs (Rapporteur: Jacek Saryusz-Wolski), 2007/2219(INI), para. 54.
46. See European Committee of Auditors, report no. 9/2006, cited in 'Report on the Discharge for Implementation of the European Union General Budget for the Financial Year 2005', section II, Committeeon Budgetary Control, European Parliament, A6-0108/2007, 30 March 2007 6-8.
47. See Gerard Galeote Quecedo, 'Institutional Aspects of the Creation of a European External Action Service', amendments 1-24, draft opinion, PE 353.440v01-00, 2004/2207(INI), in particular amendments 10-11.
48. Iñigo Méndez de Vigo, 'Towards the Establishment of a Common European Diplomacy', The European Convention, Working Group VII, Working Document no. 55, 3 December 2002 6-7.
49. Europe in the World: Some Practical Proposals for Greater Coherence, Effectiveness and Visibility, Communication from the Commission to the European Council of June 2006, COM (2006) 278 final, Brussels, 8 June 2006.
50. See Rebecca Adler-Nissen, 'Late Sovereign Diplomacy: When the National Interest is European', The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, Vol.4, No.2, 2009 121-141.