Uncertain advances: A review of the final phases of the smallpox eradication program in India, 1960-1980

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 94, Issue 11, 2004, Pages 1875-1883

  Bhattacharya, Sanjoy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

SMALLPOX VACCINE;

GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; IMMUNIZATION; INDIA; REVIEW; SMALLPOX; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 7244222398     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.94.11.1875     Document Type: Review

References (49)

1. The World Health Organization's (WHO's) official history of the last phase of the smallpox eradication program provides a detailed list of the international and Indian epidemiologists deployed in the subcontinent. See R. N. Basu, Z. Jezek, and N. A. Ward, The Eradication of Smallpox From India (New Delhi: WHO/South East Asia Regional Office, 1979).
2. I b i d.
3. The result is the presentation of huge generalizations about the structures and goals of WHO and the smallpox eradication bureaucracy it helped set up. See, for instance, footnote 21 in H. Naraindas, "Care, Welfare, and Treason: The Advent of Vaccination in the 19th Century," Contributions to Indian Soaology (new series) 32 (1998): 94.
4. See, for instance, speech by Jawaharlal Nehru about the importance of smallpox eradication reproduced in the National Smallpox Eradication Programme in India (New Delhi: Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Government of India, 1966), 1.
5. Report of the Smallpox Worker's Conference (18-20 February 1964) (New Delhi: Ministry of Health, 1964), 25.
6. Memorandum from Dr W. Bonne, director, Communicable Diseases Section, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, to Dr C. Mani, regional director, South East Asia Regional Office, New Delhi, India [hereafter SEARO], August 8, 1961, File SPX-1, Box 545, Smallpox Eradication Archives, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland [hereafter WHO/SEP].
7. Memorandum from regional director, SEARO, New Delhi, to the director, Communicable Diseases Section, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, August 18, 1961, File SPX-1, Box 545, WHO/SEP.
8. Memorandum from Dr W. Bonne, director, Communicable Diseases Section, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, to Dr C. Mani, regional director, SEARO, September 14, 1961, File SPX-1, Box 545, WHO/SEP.
9. See, for instance, Report 1961-62: Ministry of Health, Government of India (Delhi, 1964), 3, Shastri Bhavan Library, New Delhi, India [hereafter SBL].
10. See, for instance, circular letter from deputy secretary, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Government of India [hereafter GOI], to public health departments of all state governments, January 3, 1962, reproduced in National Smallpox Eradication Programme in India, 20-23.
11. Report 1961-62: Ministry of Health, 19.
12. Letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, to Dr K. M. Lal, GOI, February 21, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
13. See, for instance, telegram from A.M.H Payne, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, to the regional director, SEARO, April 4, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
14. Letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, to Dr E. S. Tierkel, USAID Office, American Embassy, New Delhi, April 12, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
15. See, for example, letter from C. Mani, director, SEARO, to the Ministry of Health and Family Planning, GOI, May 2, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
16. Letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication, WHO Headquarters, to the surgeon general, United States Public Health Service, Bethesda, Md, September 6, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
17. Personal letter from Dr N. Maltseva, SEARO, to D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication, WHO Headquarters, June 27, 1967, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
18. Personal letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, to Dr A. Oles, SEARO, September 14, 1970, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
19. For a reference to this, see personal letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, to Dr Joel Brown, Los Angeles, May 12, 1970, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
20. See, for instance, personal letter from D. A. Henderson, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters to Dr V. A. Muhopad, Lucknow, India, June 28, 1971, File 416, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
21. See letter from Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, to D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, September 15, 1972, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
22. Letter from Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, to Mrs I. Gandhi, PM, India, September 14, 1972, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
23. Mahendra Singh, "Report on a Visit to Study the Implementation of the National Smallpox Eradication Programme in Jammu & Kashmir (12 November to 27 November 1972)," c. 1973, p. 1, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP. Also see John M. Pifer, "Confidential: Smallpox in Bihar State of India During 1971;" c.1971, pp. 11-12, File 436, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
24. Mahendra Singh, "Report on a Visit to Study the Implementation of the National Smallpox Eradication Programme in Jammu & Kashmir (12 November to 27 November 1972)," c. 1973, p. 1, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP. Also see John M. Pifer, "Confidential: Smallpox in Bihar State of India During 1971;" c.1971, pp. 11-12, File 436, Box 193, WHO/SEP.
25. Personal letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, to Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, September 26, 1972, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
26. See letter from N. K. Jungalwalla, GOI, to Dr D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, December 12, 1973, File 948, Box 17, WHO/SEP.
27. Personal letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, to Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, March 5, 1973, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
28. Personal and confidential letter from Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, to D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, Geneva, June 7, 1973, File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
29. For examples of such official trends, see File 830, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
30. See, for example, Indira Gandhi's October 1974 statement and the publications released in support by state-level officials, File 832, Box 197, WHO/SEP.
31. I b i d.
32. "Review on the Situation of Reporting of Smallpox, Investigation and Containment of Outbreaks, Bhopal Division," c 1974, pp. 1-4, File 832, Box 197, WHO/SEP.
33. For a good description of the experiences of American workers in South Asia, see P. Greenough, "Intimidation, Coercion and Resistance in the Final Stages of the South Asian Smallpox Eradication Campaign, 1973-75," Social Science and Medicine 41 (1995): 633-645.
34. Mahendra Dutta, "Snakes and Ladders: An Untold Story of the Fight Against Smallpox in India," unpublished typescript, c. 1980, p. 9, private papers of Mahendra Dutta.
35. Dutta, "Snakes and Ladders," 13.
36. Letter from Dr N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, to D.A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, c. September 1974, File 388, Box 194, WHO/SEP.
37. Dutta, "Snakes and Ladders," 9-11.
38. I b i d.
39. See, for instance, memorandum from SEARO to D.A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, c. August 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.
40. See letter from H. Mahler, director general, WHO, to K. Singh, minister of health and family planning, GOI, August 20, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP. Also see personal letter from L. B. Brilliant, medical officer, SEARO, New Delhi, to WHO Headquarters, August 20, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.
41. See letter from V. T. H. Gunaratne, regional director, SEARO, to H. Mahler, director general, WHO, July 1, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP Singh's TV broadcast was immediately - and widely - reported in the Indian press. See, for example, "Smallpox Wiped Out, Says Karan Singh," Indian Express, July 1, 1975; "Small-Pox Eradicated, Claims Minister," Times of India, July 1, 1975; "No Smallpox in India," Hindustan Times, July 1, 1975; "Smallpox Eradicated," National Herald, July 1, 1975.
42. See letter from V. T. H. Gunaratne, regional director, SEARO, to H. Mahler, director general, WHO, July 1, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP Singh's TV broadcast was immediately - and widely - reported in the Indian press. See, for example, "Smallpox Wiped Out, Says Karan Singh," Indian Express, July 1, 1975; "Small-Pox Eradicated, Claims Minister," Times of India, July 1, 1975; "No Smallpox in India," Hindustan Times, July 1, 1975; "Smallpox Eradicated," National Herald, July 1, 1975.
43. See letter from V. T. H. Gunaratne, regional director, SEARO, to H. Mahler, director general, WHO, July 1, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP Singh's TV broadcast was immediately - and widely - reported in the Indian press. See, for example, "Smallpox Wiped Out, Says Karan Singh," Indian Express, July 1, 1975; "Small-Pox Eradicated, Claims Minister," Times of India, July 1, 1975; "No Smallpox in India," Hindustan Times, July 1, 1975; "Smallpox Eradicated," National Herald, July 1, 1975.
44. See letter from V. T. H. Gunaratne, regional director, SEARO, to H. Mahler, director general, WHO, July 1, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP Singh's TV broadcast was immediately - and widely - reported in the Indian press. See, for example, "Smallpox Wiped Out, Says Karan Singh," Indian Express, July 1, 1975; "Small-Pox Eradicated, Claims Minister," Times of India, July 1, 1975; "No Smallpox in India," Hindustan Times, July 1, 1975; "Smallpox Eradicated," National Herald, July 1, 1975.
45. See, for instance, letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit WHO Headquarters, to Z. Jezek, medical officer, SEARO, November 3, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.
46. Personal letter from N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO to I. Gandhi, prime minister, India, February 16, 1976, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.
47. Letter from L. B. Brilliant, medical officer, SEARO, to Mr A.K. Chakravarty, Government of West Bengal, December 3, 1975, File 832, Box 197, WHO/SEP.
48. Letter from D. A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters, to L. B. Brilliant, Michigan, USA, c. September 1976, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.
49. Letter from N. Grasset, Smallpox Eradication Unit, SEARO, to D.A. Henderson, chief, Smallpox Eradication Unit, WHO Headquarters and V. T. H. Gunaratne, regional director, SEARO, June 30, 1975, File 831, Box 195, WHO/SEP.