Residents by Day, Visitors by Night: The Origins of the Alien Commuter on the U.S.-Canadian Border during the 1920s

Michigan Historical Review

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 75-98

  Thomas, Klug A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 71449096847     PISSN: 03601846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. The issues at stake over the alien-commuter system along the Mexican border are described in Lamar B. Jones, "Alien Commuters in United States Labor Markets," International Migration Review 4 (Summer 1970): 65-89
2. On the technical characteristics of the alien commuter, see the majority opinion in Gooch v. Clark, 433 F.2d 74 (1970)
3. Saxbe v. Bustos, 419 U.S. 65, 69, 77 (1974)
4. In the Matter of L. 4 I. & N. Dec. 454 (Department of Justice, Board of Immigration Appeals, 1951)
5. In the Matter of M-D-S, 8 I. & N. Dec. 209 (1958)
6. Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Rogers, 186 F. Supp. 114 (1960)
7. Bustos and Murquia v. Mitchell, 471 F.2d 479 (1973), esp. 485-87
8. David S. North, The Border Crossers: People Who Live in Mexico and Work in the United States (Washington, D.C.: TransCentury, 1970), 86
9. Roger A. LaBrucherie, "Aliens in the Fields: The 'Green-Card Commuter' under the Immigration and Naturalization Laws," Stanford Law Review 21 (June 1969): 1750-76
10. Charles Gordon, "The Amiable Fiction-Alien Commuters under Our Immigration Laws," Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 1 (Fall 1968): 124-30
11. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, "Commuters: Historical Background, Legal Challenges, and Issues," prepared in 1967 for the Select Committee on Western Hemisphere Immigration, in U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Migratory Labor, Migrant and Seasonal Farm Worker Powerlessness (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), part 5-B, 2617-26
12. Donald H. Avery, "Canadian Workers and American Immigration Restriction: A Case of the Windsor Commuters, 1924-1931,"
13. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modem America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004)
14. Thomas A. Klug, "The Detroit Labor Movement and the United States-Canada Border, 1885-1930," Mid-America 80 (Fall 1998): 216
15. 217-21, 224-25
16. June 7, 1901, Daily Journal of C. B. Calder, Historical Collections of the Great Lakes, Jerome Library, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio
17. United States v. Michigan Central Railroad Company, 48 F. 365 (December 10, 1891)
18. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925, 2d ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988), 101-5
19. Edward P. Hutchinson Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 116-21
20. Marian L. Smith, "The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) at the U.S.-Canadian Border, 1893-1993: An Overview of Issues and Topics," Michigan Historical "Review 26 (Fall 2000): 127-47
21. th Parallel: Migration from Canada to the United States, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), esp. ch. 2, "The Rise of the Border."
22. Detroit City Directory (Detroit: R. L. Polk, 1894, 1901, 1903)
23. A. M. Doig to the District Director of Immigration, April 28, October 18, 1926, 55280/1 IB, entry 9, RG 85, NARA; and P. L. Prentis to the Commissioner-General of Immigration, July 9, 1925, 552790/11A, entry 9, RG 85
24. H. F. Hawley, "Canadian Commuters Entering Detroit from Border Cities, January 8, 1927, 2
25. idem to the Secretary of State, January 21, 1927, dispatch 202, box 18, immigration correspondence, 1910-39, 150.01 commuters, visa division, Department of State, RG 59, NARA
26. Bureau of Immigration, Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration to the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1928 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928), 9
27. L. J. Flint, "Detroit Gives Aid to Border," Border Cities Star, January 8, 1927, enclosure no. 3 in Hawley
28. "Canadian Commuters "; Harold Schantz to the Secretary of State, November 7, 1925, box 18, immigration correspondence, 1910-39, visa division, commuters, RG 59, NARA
29. Samuel Botsford, U.S. Senate, hearings, Subcommittee of the Committee on Immigration on HR 16927, 70th Cong., 2d sess., February 25, 1929, 2
30. Albert Halstead to H. F. Hawley, December 20, 1926, enclosure no. 3
31. Philip C. Jessup, "Some Phases of the Administrative and Judicial Interpretation of die Immigration Act of 1924," Yale Law Journal 35 (April 1926): 711
32. Wilbur J. Carr, for the Secretary of State, to Albert Halstead, December 27, 1926, box 18, immigration correspondence, 1910-39, 150.01 commuters, visa division, RG 59, NARA
33. Executive Order No. 4476 of July 12, 1926
34. "Documents Required of Aliens Entering the United States," Bureau of Immigration, Immigration Laws and Rules of March 1, 1927 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1927), 89
35. Immigration Act of May 26, 1924, Section 3, The Statutes at Large of the United States of America, from December, 1923 to March, 1925, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1925), 42: 154
36. "Outstanding Features of the Immigration Act of 1924," Columbia Law Renew 25 (January 1925): 92
37. Marshall Vance to the Department of State, Proposed Canadian Immigration Quota, January 26,1925, 55442/909, entry 9, RG 85, NARA
38. Culver to Couzens, September 1, 1926, exhibits D-J
39. Jeremiah Hurley to the Commissioner-General of Immigration, August 25, September 30, 1926, 54645/139A, entry 9, INS, RG 85, NARA
40. Hurley to the Commissioner-General of Immigration, August 25, 1926
41. Ned Beaumont, Beat the Border. An Insider's Guide to How the U.S. Border Works & How to Beat It (Boulder, Colo.: Paladin, 1995), 64
42. "Would Bar Canadians," New York Times, November 10, 1926, 2. Immigration, series 1, box 5, Metro Detroit AFL-CIO Collection, Archives of Labor & Urban Affairs (hereafter ALUA), Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich
43. "[Detroit] News Encourages Violation of U.S. Immigration Laws," Detroit Labor News, December 31, 1926, 1-2
44. Batt subsequently ran against Martel for the presidency of the Detroit Federation of Labor and was soundly defeated by a vote of 481 to 192
45. "Resolution Insists Law Be Enforced", January 21, 1927, 1
46. Steve Babson, Building the Union: Skilled Workers and Anglo-Gaelic Immigrants in the Rise of the UAW (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 76-80
47. H. F. Hawley to Albert Halstead, December 24, 1926, enclosure no. 4
48. Martel statement, in American Federation of Labor, Report of the Proceedings of the Forty-Eighth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (n.p.: The Federation, 1928), 261
49. The Jay Treaty (or Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation), at The Avalon Project, http://mvw.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/britain/jay.htm (accessed July 17,2008)
50. Harvey Campbell, "Detroit Gives Aid to Border. "
51. "New Rule on Aliens Tightens the Border," New York Times, April 23, 1927, 30
52. "A New Worry: The Canadian Commuter," Literary Digest, May 28, 1927, 14
53. General Order No. 86 ( "Land border crossing procedure ") can be found in Immigration, 1926-39, series 1, box 5, Metro Detroit AFL-CIO Collection, ALUA
54. "Plan to Limit Labor Coming from Canada," Detrvit Labor News, April 22, 1927, 1
55. "Are These Rulings Legal?" (editorial), Globe, August 15,1927, 4
56. "Canada Aliens Face Ban Here," Detrvit News, April 22, 1927, 1
57. "5,000 Protest U.S. Alien Ban," May 13, 1927, 6
58. Hume Wrong to Secretary Kellogg, April 23,1927, box 18, immigration correspondence, 1910-39, 150.01 commuters, visa division, Department of State, RG 59, NARA
59. Secretary Frank Kellogg to Secretary James Davis, April 27,1927
60. "Immigration Order of Dept. Officials Nullifies U.S.Law," June 17, 1927, 1-2
61. Immigration Order of Dept. Officials Nullifies U.S. Law in ibid
62. d sess. (Committee print, December 3, 1928), 3
63. "Labor Asks Commuting Labor Ban," Detroit Labor News, May 28,1930,1-2
64. On the efforts of U.S. and Canadian diplomats to manage the border crisis and the public backlash in Canada occasioned by General Order No. 86, see Avery, "Canadian Workers and American Immigration Restriction," 246-55
65. "Canadians to Enjoy Border Privileges under U.S. Ruling," Globe, July 7, 1927, 1
66. Memo, Commissioner-General of Immigration, November 16, 1927, in In the Matter of M-D-S, 8 I. & N. Dec. 209
67. "Border Commuters May Lose Their Jobs," October 17, 1927, 8
68. Border commuters may lose their jobs, ibid
69. "Migration Problem Is Adjusting Itself," December 3, 1927, 3
70. Davis to Johnson, November 26, 1928, 4
71. United States v. Karnuth, 24 F. (2d) 649 (1928)
72. United States v. Karnuth, 31 F. (2d) 785 (1927)
73. Davis to Johnson, November 26, 1928, 6-8
74. Bureau of Immigration, Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration to the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1929 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 2
75. d sess., To Clarify the Law Relating to the Temporary Admission of Aliens to the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1929), 14, 30
76. Karnuth v. U.S. ex rel. Albro, 279 US 231 (1929)
77. The debate on General Order No. 86 is in American Federation of Labor, Report of the Proceedings of the Forty-Ninth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (n.p.: The Federation, 1929), 296-304, 307-9
78. American Federation of Labor, Report of the Proceedings of the Fiftieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (n.p.: The Federation, 1930), 334
79. idem, Report of the Proceedings of the Fifty-Third Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (n.p.: The Federation, 1933), 430-31
80. idem, Report of the Proceedings of the Fifty-Fourth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (n.p.: The Federation, 1934), 567-68
81. d sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1934)
82. st sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935)
83. d sess., Congressional Record (February 3, 1936), 1380
84. st sess., (March 17, 1937), 2366
85. st sess., Congressional Record (March 17, 1937), 2355
86. Edward Shaughnessy, Deputy Commissioner of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, in U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, Hearings before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, To Exclude and Deport Alien Habitual Commuters, 27
87. st sess., Congressional Record (March 17, 1937), 2360
88. U.S. Supreme Court in Saxbe v.Bustos, 419 U.S. 78 (1974)
89. Fraser's Western Hemisphere Immigration: The Impact of Commuter Aliens along the Mexican and Canadian Borders, part 4, Detroit, Mich., March 8, 1968 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), 174
90. Alien-commuter cases at die appellate level include Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America, AFL-CIO v. Rogers, 186 F. Supp. 114 (1960)
91. Texas State AFL-CIO v. Kennedy, 330 F. 2d 217 (1964)
92. Gooch v. Clark, 433 F. 2d 74 (1970)
93. Bustos v. Mitchell, 481 F. 2d 479 (1973)
94. Saxbe v. Bustos, 419 U.S. 79 (1974)
95. Robert T. Geile, "Bustos v. Mitchell (Saxbe v. Bustos): The Dilemma of Commuting Alien Laborers," California Western International Lain Journal 5(1974): 184-202
96. Immigration and Nationality Law Review (1976-1977): 639-56