The evolution of the guild of large Carnivora of the British Isles during the Middle and Late Pleistocene

Journal of Quaternary Science

Volumn 24, Issue 8, 2009, Pages 991-1005

  Turner, Alan ^a  

^a LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

British Isles; Guild evolution; Large Carnivora; Late Pleistocene; Middle Pleistocene

Indexed keywords

DATING METHOD; FOSSIL; GUILD; LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM; LAST GLACIATION; MAMMAL; PALEONTOLOGY; PLEISTOCENE;

EURASIA; EUROPE; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE;

BISON; CANIS; CANIS FAMILIARIS; CANIS LUPUS; CARNIVORA; CROCUTA; CROCUTA CROCUTA; HOMOTHERIUM; HOMOTHERIUM LATIDENS; HYAENA; MAMMALIA; PANTHERA; PANTHERA GOMBASZOEGENSIS; PANTHERA LEO; RANGIFER TARANDUS; URSUS ARCTOS;

EID: 70749117491     PISSN: 02678179     EISSN: 10991417     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jqs.1278     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Andrews P, Turner A. 1992. Life and death of the Westbury bears. Annales Zoolici Fennici 28: 139-149.
2. Antón M, Galobart Á, Turner A. 2005.Co-existence of scimitar-toothed cats, lions and hominins in the European Pleistocene. Implications of the post-cranial anatomy of Homotherium latidens (Owen) for com-parative palaeoecology. Quaternary Science Reviews 24: 1287-1301.
3. Antón M, Salesa MJ, Galobart Á, Pastor JF, Turner A. 2009. Soft tissue reconstruction of Homotherium latidens (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae). Implications for the possibility of representation in Palaeolithic art. Geobios (in press).
4. Antón M, Turner A, Salesa MJ, Morales J. 2007. A complete skull of Chasmaporthetes lunensis (Carnivora, Hyaenidae) from the Spanish Pliocene site of La Puebla de Valverde (Teruel). Estudios Geologicos 62: 375-388.
5. Bishop MJ. 1982. The mammal fauna of the early middle Pleistocene cavern infill site of Westbury-sub-Mendip, Somerset. Palaeontological Association Special Paper 28: 1-108.
6. Boertje RD, Gasaway WC, Grangaard DV, Kellyhouse DG. 1988. Predation on moose and caribou by radio-collared grizzly bears in east central Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 2492-2499.
7. Bowen DQ. 1999. A revised correlation of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles. Geological Society of London Special Report 23.
8. Cardoso JL. 1992. Contribuição Para o C onhecimento dos GrandesMamiferos do Pleistoce ́nico Superio de Portugal. PhD dissertation, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal.
9. 39Ar, stratigraphic and palaeoclimatic data on the Isernia La Pineta Lower Palaeolithic site, Molise, Italy. Quaternary International 131: 11-22.
10. Cook J, Jacobi R. 1998. Observations on the artefacts from the Breccia at Kent's Cavern. In Stone Age Archaeology: Essays in Honour of John Wymer, Ashton N, Healy F, Pettitt P (eds). Lithic Studies Society Occasional Paper 6: Oxford; 77-89.
11. Cooper SM, Holekamp KE, Smale L. 1999. A seasonal feast: long-term analysis of feeding behaviour in spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta). African Journal of Ecology 37: 149-160.
12. Currant A. 1984. The mammalian remains. In Pontnewydd Cave, Green HS (ed.). National Museum of Wales: Cardiff; 171-180.
13. Currant A. 1989. The Quaternary origins of the modern British mammal fauna. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 38: 23-30.
14. Currant A. 2004a. The early Devensian mammalian fauna of Banwell Bone Cave, Banwell, Somerset. In The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide, Schreve DC (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: London; 81-85.
15. Currant A. 2004b. The Quaternary mammal collections at the Somerset County Museum, Taunton. In The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide, Schreve DC (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: London; 101-109.
16. Currant A, Jacobi R. 1997. Vertebrate faunas of the British Late Pleistocene and the chronology of human settlement. Quaternary Newsletter 82: 1-8.
17. Currant A, Jacobi R. 2001. A formal mammalian biostratigraphy for the Late Pleistocene of Britain. Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 1707-1716.
18. Currant A, Jacobi R. 2004. A Middle Devensian mammalian assemblage from the Hyaena Den, Wookey Hole, Somerset. In The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide, Schreve DC (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: London; 87-92.
19. Dawkins WB, Sanford WA. 1866-8. The British Pleistocene Mammalia: British Pleistocene Felidae, Vol. 1, parts I and II. Palaeontographical Society: London.
20. Dayan T, Simberloff D. 1996. Patterns of size separation in carnivore communities. In Carnivore Behavior, Ecology and Evolution, Gitlleman JL (ed.). Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY; 243-266.
21. Del Campana D. 1954. Carnivori Quaternari della tecchia e della caverna di Equi nelle Alpi Apuane (Mustelidi, Canidi, Felidi). Paleontographia Italica 44: 1-43.
22. De Lumley H, Kahlke HD, Moigne AM, Moullé PE. 1988. Les faunes de grands mammifères de la Grotte du Vallonnet Roquebrune-CapMartin, Alpes-Maritimes. L'Anthropologie 92: 465-496.
23. Dennell R, Coard R, Turner A. 2008. Predators and scavengers in Early Pleistocene southern Asia. Quaternary International 192: 78-88.
24. Devoy RJN. 1995. Deglaciation, earth crustal behaviour and sea-level changes in the determination of insularity: a perspective from Ireland. Geological Society Special Publication 96; 181-208.
25. Estes RD. 1992. The Behaviour Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA.
26. Funnell BM. 1995. Global sea-level and the (pen-)insularity of late Cenozoic Britain. Geological Society Special Publication 96; 3-13.
27. Garcia N, Arsuaga JL. 2001. Les carnivores (Mammalia) des sites du Pléistocène ancien et moyen d'Atapuerca (Espagne). L'Anthropologie 105: 83-93.
28. Gentry AW. 1999. Fossil ruminants (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Westbury Cave. In Westbury Cave: The Natural History Museum Excavations 1976-1984, Andrews P, Cook J, Currant A, Stringer C (eds.) Western Academic and Specialist Press: Bristol; 139-175.
29. Gibbard PL. 1995. The formation of the Strait of Dover. Geological Society Special Publication 96; 15-26.
30. Gibbard PL, West RG, Zagwijn WH, Balson PS, Burger AW, Funnell BM, Jeffery DH, de Jong J, van Kolfschoten T, Lister AM, Meijer T, Norton PEP, Preece RC, Rose J, Stuart AJ, Whiteman CA, Zalasiewicz JA. 1991. Early and Early Middle Pleistocene correlations in the southern North Sea basin. Quaternary Science Reviews 10: 23-52.
31. Gilmour M, Currant A, Jacobi R, Stronger C. 2007. Recent TIMS dating results from British Late Pleistocene vertebrate faunal localities: context and interpretation. Journal of Quaternary Science 22: 793-800.
32. Gunther KA, Renkin RA. 1990. Grizzly bear predation on elk calves and other fauna of Yellowstone National Park. Bears: Their Ecology and Management 8: 329-334.
33. Hemmer H. 1964. Studien an 'Panthera schaubi Viret' aus dem Villafranchien von Saint-Vallier (Drome). Neues Jahrbuch der Geologische und Palaontologische Abhandlung 122: 324-336.
34. Hemmer H. 2001. Die Feliden aus dem Epivillafranchium von Untermassfeld. In Das Pleistozän von Untermassfeld Bei Meiningen (Thüringen), Kahlke R-D (ed.). Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Band 40(3): Bonn; 699-782.
35. Hemmer H, Kahlke R-D, Keller T. 2004. Panthera onca gombaszoegensis (Kretzoi, 1938) aus den fruhmittelpleistozanen Mosbach-Sanden (Wiesbaden, Hessen, Deutschland): ein beitrag zur kenntnis der variabilitat und verbreitungsgeschichte des jaguars. Neues Jahr-buch der Geologisches und Palaontologisches Abhandlungen 229: 31-60.
36. Hemmer H, Kahlke R-D, Vekua A. 2004. The Old World puma - Puma pardoides (Owen, 1846) (Carnivora: Felidae) - in the Lower Villafranchian (Upper Pliocene) of Kvabebi (East Georgia, Transcaucasia) and its evolutionary and biogeographical significance. Neues Jahr-buch der Geologisches und Palaontologisches Abhandlungen 233: 197-331.
37. Higham TFG, Jacobi RM, Bronk Ramsey C. 2006. AMS radiocarbon dating of ancient bone using ultrafiltration. Radiocarbon 48: 179-195.
38. Hilderbrand GV, Schwartz CC, Robbins CT, Jacoby ME, Hanley TA, Arthur SM, Servheen C. 1999. The importance of meat, particularly salmon, to body size, population productivity and conservation of North American brown bears. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77: 132-138.
39. Höner OP, Wachter B, East ML, Hofer H. 2002. The response of spotted hyaenas to long-term changes in prey populations: functional response and interspecific kleptoparasitism. Journal of AnimalEcology 71: 236-246.
40. Jacobi RM, Higham TF, Bronk Ramsey C. 2006. AMS radiocarbon dating of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic bone in the British Isles: improved reliability using ultrafiltration. Journal of Qu aternaryScience 21: 557-573.
41. Johnsingh AJT. 1992. Prey selection in three large sympatric carnivores in Bandipur. Mammalia 56: 517-526.
42. Kingdon J. 1997. The Kingdon Guide to African Mammals. Harcourt- Brace: London.
43. Kruuk H. 1972. The Spotted Hyena. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.
44. Kurtén B.1958.Thebearsandhyaenasoftheinterglacials. Quaternaria 4: 69-81.
45. Kurtén B.1959.OnthebearsoftheHolsteinianinterglacial. Stockholm Contributions in Geology 2: 73-102.
46. Kurtén B.1968. Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London.
47. Lewis M, Pacher M, Turner A. 2009. The larger Carnivora of the West Runton Freshwater Bed. Quaternary International (in press).
48. Lewis SG, Parfitt SA, Preece RC, Sinclair J, Coope GR, Field MH, Maher BA, Scaife RG, Whittaker JE. 2004. Age and palaeoenvironmental setting of the Pleistocene vertebrate fauna at Norton Subcourse, Norfolk. In The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide, Schreve DC (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: London; 5-17.
49. Lister AM. 1988. Diversity and evolution of antler form in Quaternary deer. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, Wemmer C (ed.). Smithsonian Institution: Washington, DC; 81-98.
50. Lister AM. 1996. The stratigraphical interpretation of large mammal remains from the Cromer Forest-bed Formation. In The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe, Turner C (ed.). Balkema: Rotterdam; 25-44.
51. Lister AM. 1998. The age of Early Pleistocene mammal faunas from the 'Weyboune Crag' and Cromer Forest-bed Formation (Norfolk, England). Mededelingen Nederlands Institut voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen 60: 271-280.
52. Lister AM, Brandon A. 1991. A pre-Ipswichian cold stage mammalian fauna from the Balderton Sand and Gravel, Lincolnshire, England. Journal of Quaternary Science 2: 139-157.
53. Lydekker R. 1886. Note on some vertebrata from the Red Crag. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 42: 364-368.
54. Mace RD, Minta SC, Manley TL, Aune KE. 1994. Estimating grizzly bear population size using camera sightings. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 74-83.
55. Martinez-Navarro B, Rook L. 2003. Gradual evolution in the hunting dog lineage. Comptes Rendus Palevol 2: 695-702.
56. Masini F, Torre D. 1990. Large mammal dispersal events at the beginning of the late Villafranchian. In European Neogene Mammal Chronology, Lindsay E, Fahlbusch V, Mein P (eds). NATO ASI series A: Life Sciences 180: 31-38.
57. Mech LD. 1970. The Wolf: Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. Natural History Press: New York.
58. Mech LD, Smith DW, Murphy KM, MacNulty DR. 2001. Winter severity and wolf predation on a formerly wolf-free elk herd. Journal of Wildlife Management 65: 998-1003.
59. Meiri S, Dayan T, Simberloff D. 2004. Carnivores, biases and Bergmann's rule. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 81: 579-588.
60. Meiri S, Dayan T, Simberloff D. 2005. Variability and sexual dimorphism in carnivores: testing the nich variation hypothesis. Ecology 86: 1432-1440.
61. Miller SD, White GC, Sellars RA, Reynolds HV, Schoen JW, Titus K, Barnes VG, Smith RB, Nelson RR, Ballard WB, Schwartz CC. 1997. Brown and black bear density estimation in Alaska using radiotelemetry and replicated mark-resight techniques. Wildlife Mono-graphs 133: 1-55.
62. Mills MGL, Biggs HC. 1993. Prey apportionment and related ecological relationships between large carnivores in Kruger National Park. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 65: 253-268.
63. Moullé P-E. 1998. Les grands mammifères de la grotte du Vallonnet (Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, Alpes-Maritimes, France): synthèse des études antérieures et nouvelles déterminations. Bulletin du Musée d'Anthropologie Préhistoriques de Monaco 39: 29-36.
64. Newton ET. 1883. On the occurrence of the cave hyaena in the 'Forest Bed' at Corton Cliff, Suffolk. Geological Magazine 10: 433-435.
65. Newton ET. 1891. The Vertebrata of the Pliocene deposits of Britain. Memoir of the Geological Survey of the UK. Stationery Office: London.
66. O'Regan HJ. 2002. A phylogenetic and palaeoecological review of the Pleistocene felid Panthera gombaszoegensis. PhD thesis, Liverpool John Moores University.
67. O'Regan H, Turner A. 2004. Biostratigraphic and palaeoecological implications of new fossil felid material from the site of Tegelen, The Netherlands. Palaeontology 47: 1181-1193.
68. O'Regan HJ, Turner A, Wilkinson DM. 2002. European Quaternary refugia: a factor in large carnivore extinction? Journal of Quaternary Science 17: 789-795.
69. Parfitt SA, Barendregt RW, Breda M, Candy I, Collins MJ, Coope GR, Durbidge P, Field MH, Lee JR, Lister AM, Mutch R, Penkman KEH, Preece RC, Rose J, Stringer CB, Symmons R, Whittaker JE, Wymer JJ, Stuart AJ. 2005. The earliest record of human activity in Northern Europe. Nature 438: 1008-1012.
70. Pike AWG, Eggins S, Grun R, Hedges REM, Jacobi RM. 2005. U-series dating of the Late Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Wood Quarry (Steetley), Nottinghamshire, UK. Journal of Quaternary Science 20: 59-65.
71. Proctor CJ, Berridge PJ, Bishop MJ, Richards DA, Smart PL. 2005. Age of Middle Pleistocene fauna and Lower Palaeolithic industries from Kent's Cavern, Devon. Quaternary Science Reviews 24: 1243-1252.
72. Reumer JFW, Rook L, Van der Borg K, Post K, Moll D, De Vos J. 2003. Late Pleistocene survival of the saber-toothed cat Homotherium in Northwestern Europe. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 23: 260-262.
73. Roberts MB. 1990. Amey's Eartham Pit, Boxgrove. In Cromer Symposium Field Excursion Guidebook, Turner C (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: Cambridge; 62-81.
74. Root RB. 1967. The niche exploitation pattern of the blue-grey gnatcatcher. Ecological Monographs 37: 317-350.
75. Sala B. 1990. Panthera leo fossilis (Reich, 1906) (Felidae) di Isernia la Pineta (Pleistocene moyen inferieur d'Italie). Geobios. 23: 189-194.
76. Salesa MJ, Antón M, Turner A, Morales J. 2005. Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabretoothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144: 363-377.
77. Schreve DC. 2001a. Mammalian evidence from Middle Pleistocene fluvial sequences for complex environmental change at oxygen isotope substage level. Quaternary International 79: 65-74.
78. Schreve DC. 2001b. Differentiation of the British late Middle Pleistocene interglacials: the evidence from mammalian biostratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 1693-1705.
79. Schreve DC (ed.). 2004. The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association: London.
80. Sher A. 1992. Beringian fauna and early Quaternary mammal dispersal in Eurasia: ecological aspects. In Mammalian Migration and Dispersal Events in the European Quaternary, von Koenigswald W, Werdelin L (eds). Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 153: 125-133.
81. Sotnikova MV. 2001. Remains of Canidae from the Lower Pleistocene site of Untermassfeld. In Das Pleistozan von Untermassfeld Bei Meiningen (Thuringen), Kahlke R-D (ed.). Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Band 40(3): Bonn; 607-632.
82. Spencer HEP, Melville RV. 1974. The Pleistocene mammalian fauna of Dove Holes, Derbyshire. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain 48: 43-53.
83. Stuart AJ. 1982. Pleistocene Vertebrates in the British Isles. Longman: London.
84. Stuart AJ. 1988. Preglacial Pleistocene vertebrate faunas of East Anglia. In Pliocene-Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia, Gibbard PL, Zalasiewicz JA (eds). Quaternary Research Association: Cambridge, UK; 57-64.
85. Stuart AJ. 1996. Vertebrate faunas from the early Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia. In The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe, Turner C (ed.). Balkema: Rotterdam; 9-24.
86. Stuart AJ, Lister AM. 2001. The mammalian faunas of Pakefield/Kessingland and Corton, Suffolk, UK: evidence for a new temperate episode in the British early Middle Pleistocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 1677-1692.
87. Stuart AJ, Lister AM. 2007. Patterns of late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in Europe and northern Asia. Courier Forschunginstut Senckenberg 259: 287-297.
88. Stuart AJ, Parfitt SA, Breda M. 2004. An early Middle Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Pakefield-Kessingland, Suffolk. In The Quaternary Mammals of Southern and Eastern England Field Guide, Schreve DC (ed.). Quaternary Research Association: London; 19-27.
89. Sutcliffe AJ. 1964. The mammalian fauna. In The Swanscombe Skull, Ovey CD (ed.). Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional Paper 20: London; 85-111.
90. Sutcliffe AJ. 1995. Insularity of the British Isles 250000-30000 years ago: the mammalian, including human, evidence. Geological Society Special Publication 96; 127-140.
91. Turner A. 1981. Ipswichian mammal faunas, cave deposits and hyaena activity. Quaternary Newsletter 33: 17-23.
92. Turner A. 1990. The evolution of the guild of larger terrestrial carnivores during the Plio-Pleistocene in Africa. Geobios 23: 349-368.
93. Turner A. 1992. Large carnivores and earliest European hominids: changing determinants of resource availability during the Lower and Middle Pleistocene. Journal of Human Evolution 22: 109-126.
94. Turner A. 1995a. Evidence for Pleistocene contact between the British Isles and the European continent based on distributions of larger carnivores. Geological Society Special Publication 96; 141-149.
95. Turner A. 1995b. Plio-Pleistocene correlations between climatic change and evolution in terrestrial mammals: the 2.5Ma event in Africa and Europe. Acta Zoologia Cracoviensia 38: 45-58.
96. Turner A. 1995c. The Villafranchian large carnivore guild: geographic distribution and structural evolution. Il Quaternario 8: 349-356.
97. Turner A. 1995d. Regional variations in Lower and Middle Pleistocene larger mammal faunas of Europe: an Iberian perspective. In Evolución Humana en Europa y los Yacimientos de la Sierra de Atapuerca, Bermúdez de Castro JM, Carbonell E, Arsuaga JL (eds). Junta de Castilla y León: Valladolid, Spain; 57-73.
98. Turner A. 1999a. Evolution in the African Plio-Pleistocene mammalian fauna: correlation and causation. In African Biogeography, Climatic Change and Early Hominid Evolution, Bromage T, Schrenk F (eds). Oxford University Press: New York; 76-87.
99. Turner A. 1999b. Larger carnivores (Mammalia, Carnivora) from Westbury-sub-Mendip, Somerset. In Westbury Cave: The Natural History Museum Excavations 1976-1984, Andrews P, Cook J, Currant A, Stringer C (eds). Western Academic and Specialist Press: Bristol; 175-193.
100. Turner A. 1999c. Assessing earliest human settlement of Eurasia: Late Pliocene dispersions from Africa. Antiquity 73: 563-570.
101. Turner A. 2000. The Paviland mammalian fauna. In Paviland Cave and the 'Red Lady': A Definitive Report, Aldhouse-Green S (ed.). Western Academic and Specialist Press: Bristol; 133-140.
102. Turner A. 2001. Remains of Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Mammalia, Hyaenidae) from the Lower Pleistocene site of Untermassfeld near Meiningen. In Das Pleistozan von Untermassfeld Bei Meiningen (Thuringen), Kahlke R-D (ed.). Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmu-seum Band 40(3): Bonn; 673-690.
103. Turner A, Antón M.1996.Thegianthyaena, Pachycrocutabrevirostris (Mammalian, Carnivora, Hyaenidae). Geobios 29: 455-468.
104. Turner A, Antón M. 1997. The Big Cats and their Fossil Relatives. Columbia University Press: New York.
105. Turner A, Antón M.1999.Climateandevolution:implicationsofsome extinction patterns in African and European machairodontine cats of the Plio-Pleistocene. Estudios Geologicos 54: 209-230.
106. Turner A, Antón M. 2004. Evolving Eden: An Illustrated Guide to the Evolution of the African Large-Mammal Fauna. Columbia University Press: New York.
107. Turner A, O'Regan H. 2002. The assessment of size in fossil Felidae. Estudios Geologicos 58: 45-54.
108. Turner A, Antón M, Werdelin L. 2008. Taxonomy and evolutionary patterns in the fossil Hyaenidae of Europe. Geobios 41: 677-687.
109. Van Valkenburgh B. 1985. Locomotor diversity within past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 11: 406-428.
110. Van Valkenburgh B. 1988. Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 14: 155-173.
111. Viret J. 1954. Le loess à bancs durcis de Saint-Vallier (Drôme) et sa faune de mammifères villafranchiens. Nouvelle Archives de la Musée d'Histoire Naturelle de Lyon 4: 1-200.
112. Wang X, Tedford RH. 2008. Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History. Columbia University Press: New York.
113. Werdelin L, Turner A. 1996a. Turnover in the guild of larger carnivores in Eurasia across the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 39: 585-592.
114. Werdelin L, Turner A. 1996b. The fossil Hyaenidae of Africa: present status. In Palaeoecology and Palaeoenvironments of Late Cenozoic Mammals: Tributes to the Career of C.S. Churcher, Stewart KM, Seymour KL (eds). University of Toronto Press: Toronto; 637-659.
115. Woodman P, McCarthy M, Monaghan N. 1997. The Irish Quaternary fauna project. Quaternary Science Reviews 16: 129-159.
116. Yalden D. 1999. The History of British Mammals. Academic Press: London.
117. Young DD, McCabe TR. 1997. Grizzly bear predation rates on caribou calves in northeastern Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 1056-1066.
118. Zagwijn WH. 1992. Migration of vegetation during the Quaternary in Europe. In Mammalian Migration and Dispersal Events in the European Quaternary, von Koenigswald W, Werdelin L (eds). Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 153: 9-20.