The Encephalopathy of Prematurity-Brain Injury and Impaired Brain Development Inextricably Intertwined

Seminars in Pediatric Neurology

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 167-178

  Volpe, Joseph J ^a  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN DISEASE; BRAIN INJURY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; GESTATION PERIOD; HUMAN; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEWBORN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PREMATURITY; REVIEW;

BRAIN; BRAIN INJURIES; DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANT, PREMATURE; INFANT, PREMATURE, DISEASES;

EID: 70450284554     PISSN: 10719091     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.spen.2009.09.005     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Volpe J.J. Brain injury in premature infants: A complex amalgam of destructive and developmental disturbances. Lancet Neurol 8 (2009) 110-124
2. Martin J.A., Kung H.C., Mathews T.J., et al. Annual summary of vital statistics: 2006. Pediatrics 121 (2008) 788-801
3. Woodward L.J., Edgin J.O., Thompson D., et al. Object working memory deficits predicted by early brain injury and development in the preterm infant. Brain 128 (2005) 2578-2587
4. Bayless S., and Stevenson J. Executive functions in school-age children born very prematurely. Early Hum Dev 83 (2007) 247-254
5. Platt M.J., Cans C., Johnson A., et al. Trends in cerebral palsy among infants of very low birthweight (<1500 g) or born prematurely (<32 weeks) in 16 European centres: A database study. Lancet 369 (2007) 43-50
6. Larroque B., Ancel P.Y., Marret S., et al. Neurodevelopmental disabilities and special care of 5-year-old children born before 33 weeks of gestation (the EPIPAGE study): A longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 371 (2008) 813-820
7. Kobaly K., Schluchter M., Minich N., et al. Outcomes of extremely low birth weight (<1 kg) and extremely low gestational age (<28 weeks) infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: Effects of practice changes in 2000 to 2003. Pediatrics 121 (2008) 73-81
8. Allin M., Walshe M., Fern A., et al. Cognitive maturation in preterm and term born adolescents. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 79 (2008) 381-386
9. Limperopoulos C., Bassan H., Sullivan N.R., et al. Positive screening for autism in ex-preterm infants: Prevalence and risk factors. Pediatrics 121 (2008) 758-765
10. Volpe J.J. Neurology of the Newborn, 5th ed (2008), Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA
11. Lowe J., MacLean P.C., Shaffer M.L., et al. Early working memory in children born with extremely low birth weight: Assessed by object permanence. J Child Neurol 24 (2009) 410-415
12. Kuban K.C., O'Shea T.M., Allred E.N., et al. Positive screening on the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) in extremely low gestational age newborns. J Pediatr 154 (2009) 535-540
13. Johnson S., and Marlow N. Positive screening results on the modified checklist for autism in toddlers: Implications for very preterm populations. J Pediatr 154 (2009) 478-480
14. Marlow N., Hennessy E.M., Bracewell M.A., et al. Motor and executive function at 6 years of age after extremely preterm birth. Pediatrics 120 (2007) 793-804
15. Wood N.S., Costeloe K., Gibson A.T., et al. The EPICure study: Associations and antecedents of neurological and developmental disability at 30 months of age following extremely preterm birth. Arch Dis Child 90 (2005) F134-FF40
16. Wolke D., Samara M., Bracewell M., et al. Specific language difficulties and school achievement in children born at 25 weeks of gestation or less. J Pediatr 152 (2008) 256-262
17. Volpe J.J. Encephalopathy of prematurity includes neuronal abnormalities. Pediatrics 116 (2005) 221-225
18. Larroque B., Marret S., Ancel P.Y., et al. White matter damage and intraventricular hemorrhage in very preterm infants: The EPIPAGE study. J Pediatr 143 (2003) 477-483
19. Miller S.P., Cozzio C.C., Goldstein R.B., et al. Comparing the diagnosis of white matter injury in premature newborns with serial MR imaging and transfontanel ultrasonography findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24 (2003) 1661-1669
20. Inder T.E., Warfield S.K., Wang H., et al. Abnormal cerebral structure is present at term in premature infants. Pediatrics 115 (2005) 286-294
21. Miller S.P., Ferriero D.M., Leonard C., et al. Early brain injury in premature newborns detected with magnetic resonance imaging is associated with adverse early neurodevelopmental outcome. J Pediatr 147 (2005) 609-616
22. Woodward L.J., Anderson P.J., Austin N.C., et al. Neonatal MRI to predict neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 355 (2006) 685-694
23. Haynes R.L., Folkerth R.D., Keefe R., et al. Nitrosative and oxidative injury to premyelinating oligodendrocytes is accompanied by microglial activation in periventricular leukomalacia in the human premature infant. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 62 (2003) 441-450
24. Back S.A., Luo N.L., Mallinson R.A., et al. Selective vulnerability of preterm white matter to oxidative damage defined by F(2)-isoprostanes. Ann Neurol 58 (2005) 108-120
25. Robinson S., Li Q., Dechant A., et al. Neonatal loss of gamma-aminobutyric acid pathway expression after human perinatal brain injury. J Neurosurg 104 suppl 6 (2006) 396-408
26. Billiards S.S., Haynes R.L., Folkerth R.D., et al. Myelin abnormalities without oligodendrocyte loss in periventricular leukomalacia. Brain Pathol 18 (2008) 153-163
27. Peterson B.S., Vohr B., Staib L.H., et al. Regional brain volume abnormalities and long-term cognitive outcome in preterm infants. JAMA 284 (2000) 1939-1947
28. Nosarti C., Al-Asady M.H.S., Frangou S., et al. Adolescents who were born very preterm have decreased brain volumes. Brain 125 (2002) 1616-1623
29. Reiss A.L., Kesler S.R., Vohr B., et al. Sex differences in cerebral volumes of 8-year-olds born preterm. J Pediatr 145 (2004) 242-249
30. Kesler S.R., Ment L.R., Vohr B., et al. Volumetric analysis of regional cerebral development in preterm children. Pediatr Neurol 31 (2004) 318-325
31. Allin M., Henderson M., Suckling J., et al. Effects of very low birthweight on brain structure in adulthood. Dev Med Child Neurol 46 (2004) 46-53
32. Fearon P., O'Connell P., Frangou S., et al. Brain volumes in adult survivors of very low birth weight: A sibling-controlled study. Pediatrics 114 (2004) 367-371
33. Lodygensky G.A., Rademaker K.J., Zimine S., et al. Structural and functional brain developmental after hydrocortisone treatment for neonatal chronic lung disease. Pediatrics 116 (2005) 1-7
34. Vangberg T.R., Skranes J., Dale A.M., et al. Changes in white matter diffusion anisotropy in adolescents born prematurely. NeuroImage 32 (2006) 1538-1548
35. Cheong J.L., Thompson D.K., Wang H.X., et al. Abnormal white matter signal on MR imaging is related to abnormal tissue microstructure. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 30 (2009) 623-628
36. Yang Z., Covey M.V., Bitel C.L., et al. Sustained neocortical neurogenesis after neonatal hypoxic/ischemic injury. Ann Neurol 61 (2007) 199-208
37. Sizonenko S.V., Camm E.J., Dayer A., et al. Glial responses to neonatal hypoxic-ischemic injury in the rat cerebral cortex. Int J Dev Neurosci 26 (2008) 37-45
38. Maalouf E.F., Duggan P.J., Rutherford M.A., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in a cohort of extremely preterm infants. J Pediatr 135 (1999) 351-357
39. Inder T.E., Anderson N.J., Spencer C., et al. White matter injury in the premature infant: A comparison between serial cranial ultrasound and MRI at term. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24 (2003) 805-809
40. Debillon T., Guyen S.N., Muet A., et al. Limitations of ultrasonography for diagnosing white matter damage in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 88 (2003) F275-FF79
41. Inder T.E., Wells S.J., Mogridge N., et al. Defining the nature of the cerebral abnormalities in the premature infant-a qualitative magnetic resonance imaging study. J Pediatr 143 (2003) 171-179
42. Counsell S.J., Allsop J.M., Harrison M.C., et al. Diffusion weighted imaging of the brain in preterm infants with focal and diffuse white matter abnormality. Pediatrics 112 (2003) 1-7
43. Volpe J.J. Cerebral white matter injury of the premature infant-more common than you think. Pediatrics 112 (2003) 176-179
44. Dyet L.E., Kennea N.L., Counsell S.J., et al. Natural history of brain lesions in extremely preterm infants studied with serial magnetic resonance imaging from birth and neurodevelopmental assessment. Pediatrics 118 (2006) 536-548
45. Krishnan M.L., Dyet L.E., Boardman J.P., et al. Relationship between white matter apparent diffusion coefficients in preterm infants at term-equivalent age and developmental outcome at 2 years. Pediatrics 120 (2007) e604-e609
46. Counsell S.J., Edwards A.D., Chew A.T., et al. Specific relations between neurodevelopmental abilities and white matter microstructure in children born preterm. Brain 131 (2008) 3201-3208
47. Volpe J.J. Cerebellum of the premature infant-rapidly developing, vulnerable, clinically important. J Child Neurol 24 (2009) 1085-1104
48. Banker B.Q., and Larroche J.C. Periventricular leukomalacia of infancy. A form of neonatal anoxic encephalopathy. Arch Neurol 7 (1962) 386-410
49. Arai Y., Deguchi K., Mizuguchi M., et al. Expression of b-amyloid precursor protein in axons of periventricular leukomalacia brains. Pediatr Neurol 13 (1995) 161-163
50. Deguchi K., Oguchi K., and Takashima S. Characteristic neuropathology of leukomalacia in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatr Neurol 16 (1997) 296-300
51. Meng S.Z., Arai Y., Deguchi K., et al. Early detection of axonal and neuronal lesions in prenatal-onset periventricular leukomalacia. Brain Dev 19 (1997) 480-484
52. Deguchi K., Oguchi K., Matsuura N., et al. Periventricular leukomalacia: relation to gestational age and axonal injury. Pediatr Neurol 20 (1999) 370-374
53. Haynes R.L., Billiards S.S., Borenstein N.S., et al. Diffuse axonal injury in periventricular leukomalacia as determined by apoptotic marker fractin. Pediatr Res 63 (2008) 656-661
54. Huppi P.S., Maier S.E., Peled S., et al. Microstructural development of human newborn cerebral white matter assessed in vivo by diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Res 44 (1998) 584-590
55. Miller S.P., Vigneron D.B., Henry R.G., et al. Serial quantitative diffusion tensor MRI of the premature brain: Development in newborns with and without injury. J Magn Reson Imaging 16 (2002) 621-632
56. Huppi P.S., Murphy B., Maier S.E., et al. Microstructural brain development after perinatal cerebral white matter injury assessed by diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatrics 107 (2001) 455-460
57. Martinussen M., Fischl B., Larsson H.B., et al. Cerebral cortex thickness in 15-year-old adolescents with low birth weight measured by an automated MRI-based method. Brain 128 (2005) 2588-2596
58. Anjari M., Srinivasan L., Allsop J.M., et al. Diffusion tensor imaging with tract-based spatial statistics reveals local white matter abnormalities in preterm infants. NeuroImage 35 (2007) 1021-1027
59. Counsell S., Shen Y., Boardman J.P., et al. Axial and radial diffusivity in preterm infants who have diffuse white matter changes on MRI at term equivalent age. Pediatrics 117 (2006) 376-386
60. Counsell S.J., Dyet L.E., Larkman D.J., et al. Thalamo-cortical connectivity in children born preterm mapped using probabilistic magnetic resonance tractography. NeuroImage 34 (2007) 896-904
61. Bassi L., Ricci D., Volzone A., et al. Probabilistic diffusion tractography of the optic radiations and visual function in preterm infants at term equivalent age. Brain 131 (2008) 573-582
62. Drobyshevsky A., Bregman J., Storey P., et al. Serial diffusion tensor imaging detects white matter changes that correlate with motor outcome in premature infants. Dev Neurosci 29 (2007) 289-301
63. McQuillen P.S., Sheldon R.A., Shatz C.J., et al. Selective vulnerability of subplate neurons after early neonatal hypoxia-ischemia. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 3308-3315
64. Andiman S.E., Haynes R.L., Folkerth R.D., et al. Loss of white matter neurons in periventricular leukomalacia: Implications for cognitive deficits in survivors of prematurity. Soc Neurosci (2009) (Abstract)
65. Lin Y., Okumura A., Hayakawa F., et al. Quantitative evaluation of thalami and basal ganglia in infants with periventricular leukomalacia. Dev Med Child Neurol 43 (2001) 481-485
66. Boardman J.P., Counsell S.J., Rueckert D., et al. Abnormal deep grey matter development following preterm birth detected using deformation based morphometry. NeuroImage 32 (2006) 70-78
67. Nosarti C., Giouroukou E., Healy E., et al. Grey and white matter distribution in very preterm adolescents mediates neurodevelopmental outcome. Brain 131 (2007) 205-217
68. Kesler S.R., Reiss A.L., Vohr B., et al. Brain volume reductions within multiple cognitive systems in male preterm children at age twelve. J Pediatr 152 (2008) 513-520
69. Pierson C.R., Folkerth R.D., Billards S.S., et al. Gray matter injury associated with periventricular leukomalacia in the premature infant. Acta Neuropathol 114 (2007) 619-631
70. Ligam P., Haynes R.L., Folkerth R.D., et al. Thalamic damage in periventricular leukomalacia: Novel pathologic observations relevant to cognitive deficits in survivors of prematurity. Pediatr Res 65 (2009) 524-529
71. Abernethy L.J., Cooke R.W., and Foulder-Hughes L. Caudate and hippocampal volumes, intelligence, and motor impairment in 7-year-old children who were born preterm. Pediatr Res 55 (2004) 884-893
72. Inder T.E., Huppi P.S., Warfield S., et al. Periventricular white matter injury in the premature infant is associated with a reduction in cerebral cortical gray matter volume at term. Ann Neurol 46 (1999) 755-760
73. Peterson B.S., Anderson A.W., Ehrenkranz R.A., et al. Regional brain volumes and their later neurodevelopmental correlates in term and preterm infants. Pediatrics 111 (2003) 939-948
74. Isaacs E., Lucas A., Chong W.K., et al. Hippocampal volume and everyday memory in children of very low birth weight. Pediatr Res 47 (2000) 713-720
75. Thompson D.K., Wood S.J., Doyle L.W., et al. Neonate hippocampal volumes: prematurity, perinatal predictors, and 2-year outcome. Ann Neurol 63 (2008) 642-651
76. Armstrong D.L., Sauls C.D., and Goddard-Finegold J. Neuropathologic findings in short-term survivors of intraventricular hemorrhage. Am J Dis Child 141 (1987) 617-621
77. Marin-Padilla M. Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. II. White matter lesions of the neocortex. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 56 (1997) 219-235
78. Kinney H.C., and Armstrong D.L. Perinatal neuropathology. In: Graham D.I., and Lantos P.E. (Eds). Greenfield's Neuropathology, 7th ed (2002), Arnold Publishers, London, UK 519-606
79. Andiman S.E., Haynes R.L., Trachtenberg F.L., et al. The cerebral cortex overlying periventricular leukomalacia: Analysis of pyramidal neurons. Soc Neurosci (2009) (Abstract)
80. Dobbing J., Hopewell J.W., Lynch A., et al. Vulnerability of developing brain. I. Some lasting effects of x-irradiation. Exp Neurol 28 (1970) 442-449
81. Dobbing J. The later growth of the brain and its vulnerability. Pediatrics 53 (1974) 2-6
82. Back S.A., and Volpe J.J. Cellular and molecular pathogenesis of periventricular white matter injury. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 3 (1997) 96-107
83. Back S.A., Khan R., Gan X., et al. A new alamar blue viability assay to rapidly quantify oligodendrocyte death. J Neurosci Methods 91 (1999) 47-54
84. Back S.A., Luo N.L., Borenstein N.S., et al. Late oligodendrocyte progenitors coincide with the developmental window of vulnerability for human perinatal white matter injury. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 1302-1312
85. Kinney H.C., and Back S.A. Human oligodendroglial development: Relationship to periventricular leukomalacia. Semin Pediatr Neurol 5 (1998) 180-189
86. Khwaja O., and Volpe J.J. Pathogenesis of cerebral white matter injury of prematurity. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 93 (2008) F153-FF61
87. Back S.A., Gan X., Li Y., et al. Maturation-dependent vulnerability of oligodendrocytes to oxidative stress-induced death caused by glutathione depletion. J Neurosci 18 (1998) 6241-6253
88. Folkerth R.D., Keefe R.J., Haynes R.L., et al. Interferon-gamma expression in periventricular leukomalacia in the human brain. Brain Pathol 14 (2004) 265-274
89. Folkerth R.D., Haynes R.L., Borenstein N.S., et al. Developmental lag in superoxide dismutases relative to other antioxidant enzymes in premyelinated human telencephalic white matter. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63 (2004) 990-999
90. Li J., Baud O., Vartanian T., et al. Peroxynitrite generated by inducible nitric oxide synthase and NADPH oxidase mediates microglial toxicity to oligodendrocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (2005) 9936-9941
91. Buntinx M., Moreels M., Vandenabeele F., et al. Cytokine-induced cell death in human oligodendroglial cell lines. I. Synergistic effects of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha on apoptosis. J Neurosci Res 76 (2004) 834-845
92. Pang Y., Cai Z.W., and Rhodes P.G. Effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on developing optic nerve oligodendrocytes in culture. J Neurosci Res 80 (2005) 226-234
93. Talos D.M., Follett P.L., Folkerth R.D., et al. Developmental regulation of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor subunit expression in forebrain and relationship to regional susceptibility to hypoxic/ischemic injury. II. Human cerebral white matter and cortex. J Comp Neurol 497 (2006) 61-77
94. DeSilva T.M., Kinney H.C., Borenstein N.S., et al. The glutamate transporter is transiently expressed in developing human cerebral white matter. J Comp Neurol 501 (2007) 879-890
95. Karadottir R., and Attwell D. Neurotransmitter receptors in the life and death of oligodendrocytes. Neuroscience 145 (2007) 1426-1438
96. Manning S.M., Talos D.M., Zhou C., et al. NMDA receptor blockade with memantine attenuates white matter deficits in a rat model of periventricular leukomalacia. J Neurosci 28 (2008) 6670-6678
97. Rivest S. Molecular insights on the cerebral innate immune system. Brain Behav Immun 17 (2003) 13-19
98. Rezaie P., Dean A., Male D., et al. Microglia in the cerebral wall of the human telencephalon at second trimester. Cereb Cortex 15 (2005) 938-949
99. Monier A., Evrard P., Gressens P., et al. Distribution and differentiation of microglia in the human encephalon during the first two trimesters of gestation. J Comp Neurol 499 (2006) 565-582
100. Billiards S.S., Haynes R.L., Folkerth R.D., et al. Development of microglia in the cerebral white matter of the human fetus and infant. J Comp Neurol 497 (2006) 199-208
101. Agresti C., D'Urso D., and Levi G. Reversible inhibitory effects of interferon-g and tumour necrosis factor-a on oligodendroglial lineage cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro. Eur J Neurosci 8 (1996) 1106-1116
102. Andrews T., Zhang P., and Bhat N.R. TNF-a potentiates IFNg-induced cell death in oligodendrocyte progenitors. J Neurosci Res 54 (1998) 574-583
103. Xie Z., Wei M., Morgan T.E., et al. Peroxynitrite mediates neurotoxicity of amyloid b-peptide 1-42- and lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia. J Neurosci 22 (2002) 3484-3492
104. Lehnardt S., Massillon L., Follet P., et al. Activation of innate immunity in the CNS triggers neurodegeneration through a Toll-like receptor 4-dependent pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 (2003) 8514-8519
105. Lechpammer M., Manning S.M., Samonte F., et al. Minocycline treatment following hypoxic-ischemic injury attenuates white matter injury in a rodent model of periventricular leukomalacia. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 34 (2008) 379-393
106. Kostovic I., and Judas M. Correlation between the sequential ingrowth of afferents and transient patterns of cortical lamination in preterm infants. Anat Rec 267 (2002) 1-6
107. Kostovic I., Judas M., Rados M., et al. Laminar organization of the human fetal cerebrum revealed by histochemical markers and magnetic resonance imaging. Cereb Cortex 12 (2002) 536-544
108. Haynes R.L., Borenstein N.S., DeSilva T.M., et al. Axonal development in the cerebral white matter of the human fetus and infant. J Comp Neurol 484 (2005) 156-167
109. Kostovic I., and Jovanov-Milosevic N. The development of cerebral connections during the first 20-45 weeks' gestation. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 11 (2006) 415-422
110. Kostovic I., and Judas M. Transient patterns of cortical lamination during prenatal life: do they have implications for treatment?. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 31 (2007) 1157-1168
111. Bystron I., Blakemore C., and Rakic P. Development of the human cerebral cortex: Boulder Committee revisited. Nat Rev Neurosci 9 (2008) 110-122
112. Volpe J.J. Subplate neurons-missing link in brain injury of the premature infant?. Pediatrics 97 (1996) 112-113
113. McConnell S.K., Ghosh A., and Shatz C.J. Subplate neurons pioneer the first axon pathway from the cerebral cortex. Science 245 (1989) 978-982
114. Ghosh A., Antonini A., McConnell S.K., et al. Requirement for subplate neurons in the formation of thalamocortical connections. Nature 347 (1990) 179-181
115. Ghosh A., and Shatz C.J. Involvement of subplate neurons in the formation of ocular dominance columns. Science 255 (1992) 1441-1443
116. Kanold P.O., Kara P., Reid R.C., et al. Role of subplate neurons in functional maturation of visual cortical columns. Science 301 (2003) 521-525
117. Kanold P.O. Transient microcircuits formed by subplate neurons and their role in functional development of thalamocortical connections. NeuroReport 15 (2004) 2149-2153
118. Bystron I., Molnar Z., Otellin V., et al. Tangential networks of precocious neurons and early axonal outgrowth in the embryonic human forebrain. J Neurosci 25 (2005) 2781-2792
119. Letinic K., Zoncu R., and Rakic P. Origin of GABAergic neurons in the human neocortex. Nature 417 (2002) 645-649
120. Tan S.S. Developmental neurobiology: cortical liars. Nature 417 (2002) 605-606
121. Inta D., Alfonso J., von Engelhardt J., et al. Neurogenesis and widespread forebrain migration of distinct GABAergic neurons from the postnatal subventricular zone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105 (2008) 20994-20999
122. Petanjek Z., Berger B., and Esclapez M. Origins of cortical GABAergic neurons in the cynomolgus monkey. Cereb Cortex 19 (2009) 249-262
123. Bayer S.A., and Altman J. The Human Brain During the Third Trimester: Atlas of Human Central Nervous System Development (2004), CRC Press, London, UK
124. Letinic K., and Rakic P. Telencephalic origin of human thalamic GABAergic neurons. Nat Neurosci 4 (2001) 931-936
125. Montero V.M. The interneuronal nature of GABAergic neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the rhesus monkey: A combined HRP and GABA-immunocytochemical study. Exp Brain Res 64 (1986) 615-622
126. Montero V.M., and Zempel J. The proportion and size of GABA-immunoreactive neurons in the magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the rhesus monkey. Exp Brain Res 62 (1986) 215-223
127. Abitz M., Nielsen R.D., Jones E.G., et al. Excess of neurons in the human newborn mediodorsal thalamus compared with that of the adult. Cereb Cortex 17 (2007) 2573-2578
128. Huppi P.S., Warfield S., Kikinis R., et al. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of brain development in premature and mature newborns. Ann Neurol 43 (1998) 224-235
129. Kapellou O., Counsell S.J., Kennea N.L., et al. Abnormal cortical development after premature birth shown by altered allometric scaling of brain growth. PLoS Med 3 (2006) e265
130. Follett P.L., Rosenberg P.A., Volpe J.J., et al. NBQX attenuates excitotoxic injury in developing white matter. J Neurosci 20 (2000) 9235-9241
131. Back S.A., Han B.H., Luo N.L., et al. Selective vulnerability of late oligodendrocyte progenitors to hypoxia-ischemia. J Neurosci 22 (2002) 455-463
132. Bell M.J., and Hallenbeck J.M. Effects of intrauterine inflammation on developing rat brain. J Neurosci Res 70 (2002) 570-579
133. Duncan J.R., Cock M.L., Scheerlinck J.-P.Y., et al. White matter injury after repeated endotoxin exposure in the preterm ovine fetus. Pediatr Res 52 (2002) 941-949
134. Deng W., Rosenberg P.A., Volpe J.J., et al. Calcium-permeable AMPA/kainate receptors mediate toxicity and preconditioning by oxygen-glucose deprivation in oligodendrocyte precursors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 (2003) 6801-6806
135. Yoshioka A., Bacskai B., and Pleasure D. Pathophysiology of oligodendroglial excitotoxicity. J Neurosci Res 46 (1996) 427-438
136. McDonald J.W., Althomsons S.P., Hyrc K.L., et al. Oligodendrocytes from forebrain are highly vulnerable to AMPA/kainate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity. Nat Med 4 (1998) 291-297
137. Matute C., Alberdi E., Domercq M., et al. The link between excitotoxic oligodendroglial death and demyelinating diseases. Trends Neurosci 24 (2001) 224-230
138. Itoh T., Beesley J., Itoh A., et al. AMPA glutamate receptor-mediated calcium signaling is transiently enhanced during development of oligodendrocytes. J Neurochem 81 (2002) 390-402
139. Sanchez-Gomez M.V., Alberdi E., Ibarretxe G., et al. Caspase-dependent and caspase-independent oligodendrocyte death mediated by AMPA and kainate receptors. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 9519-9528
140. Rosenberg P.A., Dai W., Gan X.D., et al. Mature myelin basic protein expressing oligodendrocytes are insensitive to kainate toxicity. J Neurosci Res 71 (2003) 237-245
141. Deng W., Yue Q., Rosenberg P.A., et al. Oligodendrocyte excitotoxicity determined by local glutamate accumulation and mitochondrial function. J Neurochem 96 (2006) 213-222
142. Salter M.G., and Fern R. NMDA receptors are expressed in developing oligodendrocyte processes and mediate injury. Nature 438 (2005) 1167-1171
143. Karadottir R., Cavelier P., Bergersen L.H., et al. NMDA receptors are expressed in oligodendrocytes and activated in ischaemia. Nature 438 (2005) 1162-1166
144. Matute C. Oligodendrocyte NMDA receptors: A novel therapeutic target. Trends Mol Med 12 (2006) 289-292
145. Micu I., Jiang Q., Coderre E., et al. NMDA receptors mediate calcium accumulation in myelin during chemical ischaemia. Nature 439 (2006) 988-992
146. Bjartmar C., Yin X., and Trapp B.D. Axonal pathology in myelin disorders. J Neurocytol 28 (1999) 383-395
147. Biffiger K., Bartsch S., Montag D., et al. Severe hypomyelination of the murine CNS in the absence of myelin-associated glycoprotein and fyn tyrosine kinase. J Neurosci 20 (2000) 7430-7437
148. Gotow T., Leterrier J.F., Ohsawa Y., et al. Abnormal expression of neurofilament proteins in dysmyelinating axons located in the central nervous system of jimpy mutant mice. Eur J Neurosci 11 (1999) 3893-3903
149. Lappe-Siefke C., Goebbels S., Gravel M., et al. Disruption of Cnp1 uncouples oligodendroglial functions in axonal support and myelination. Nat Genet 33 (2003) 366-374
150. Rasband M.N., Tayler R., Kaga Y., et al. CNP is required for maintenance of axon-glia interactions at nodes of Ranvier in the CNS. Glia 50 (2005) 86-90
151. Dutta R., and Trapp B.D. Pathogenesis of axonal and neuronal damage in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 68 (2007) S22-S31
152. Roy K., Murtie J.C., El-Khodor B.F., et al. Loss of erbB signaling in oligodendrocytes alters myelin and dopaminergic function, a potential mechanism for neuropsychiatric disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104 (2007) 8131-8136
153. Nakazawa T., Nakazawa C., Matsubara A., et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha mediates oligodendrocyte death and delayed retinal ganglion cell loss in a mouse model of glaucoma. J Neurosci 26 (2006) 12633-12641
154. Drobyshevsky A., Song S.K., Gamkrelidze G., et al. Developmental changes in diffusion anisotropy coincide with immature oligodendrocyte progression and maturation of compound action potential. J Neurosci 25 (2005) 5988-5997
155. Wilkins A., Majed H., Layfield R., et al. Oligodendrocytes promote neuronal survival and axonal length by distinct intracellular mechanisms: a novel role for oligodendrocyte-derived glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 4967-4974
156. Dai X., Lercher L.D., Clinton P.M., et al. The trophic role of oligodendrocytes in the basal forebrain. J Neurosci 23 (2003) 5846-5853
157. Du Y.Z., and Dreyfus C.F. Oligodendrocytes as providers of growth factors. J Neurosci 68 (2002) 647-654
158. Skranes J., Vangberg T.R., Kulseng S., et al. Clinical findings and white matter abnormalities seen on diffusion tensor imaging in adolescents with very low birth weight. Brain 130 (2007) 654-666
159. Sizonenko S.V., Sirimanne E., Mayall Y., et al. Selective cortical alteration after hypoxic-ischemic injury in the very immature rat brain. Pediatr Res 54 (2003) 263-269
160. McCarran W.J., and Goldberg M.P. White matter axon vulnerability to AMPA/kainate receptor-mediated ischemic injury is developmentally regulated. J Neurosci 27 (2007) 4220-4229
161. Tekkok S.B., and Goldberg M.P. AMPA/kainate receptor activation mediates hypoxic oligodendrocyte death and axonal injury in cerebral white matter. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 4237-4248
162. Wakita H., Tomimoto H., Akiguchi I., et al. Axonal damage and demyelination in the white matter after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in the rat. Brain Res 924 (2002) 63-70
163. Northington F.J., Ferriero D.M., Flock D.L., et al. Delayed neurodegeneration in neonatal rat thalamus after hypoxia-ischemia is apoptosis. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 1931-1938
164. Ghosh A., and Shatz C.J. A role for subplate neurons in the patterning of connections from thalamus to neocortex. Development 117 (1993) 1031-1047
165. Romanko M.J., Rothstein R.P., and Levison S.W. Neural stem cells in the subventricular zone are resilient to hypoxia/ischemia whereas progenitors are vulnerable. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 24 (2004) 814-825