"Signs of the times": Medicine and nationhood in british India

Osiris

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 188-211

  Chakrabarti, Pratik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CIVILIZATION; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDIA; MEDICAL RESEARCH; POLITICAL SYSTEM; POLITICS; UNITED KINGDOM;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; CIVILIZATION; COLONIALISM; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INDIA; POLITICS;

EID: 70450245450     PISSN: 03697827     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/605975     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. "Lt Col SH Burnett, I.M.S., Reasons for taking leave preparatory to Retirement including Question of Examination of European Patients by Indian Medical Students," C&R 1784, 1923, L/E/7/1156, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections, British Library, London (hereafter cited as APAC).
2. Burnett to the Personal Assistant to the Surgeon General, Govt. of Bombay, 28 Dec. 1921, 1-2, L/E /7/1156, APAC.
3. Fardunji M. Dastur to the Surgeon General, Govt, of Bombay, 13 Dec. 1921, L/E/7/1156, APAC.
4. Burnett to the Personal Assistant to the Surgeon General, Govt. of Bombay, 8 Jan. 1922, 1, L/E/7/ 1156, APAC.
5. Ibid., Burnett to the Personal Assistant to the Surgeon General, Govt. of Bombay, 2-3.
6. Turner's note to the Government of India (GOI), 1 May 1923, L/E/7/1156, APAC.
7. Note from Dawson to Turner, 8 Aug. 1923, L/E/7/1156, APAC.
8. Draft paragraph of the private letter from Lord Peel to Sir George Lloyd, 14 May 1923, 1, L/E/ 7 /1156, APAC.
9. Lloyd to Peel, Turner, and Hirtzel, 8 June 1923, L/E/7/1156, APAC.
10. Ibid. Lloyd to Peel, Turner, and Hirtzel, 1923
11. Christopher Hamlin, "State Medicine in Great Britain," in The History of Public Health and the Modern State, ed. Dorothy Porter (Amsterdam, 1994), 134-44.
12. David C. Potter, "Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The Case of the Indian Civil Service," Modern Asian Studies 7 (1973): 47-73.
13. David Arnold, "Colonial Medicine in Transition: Medical Research in India, 1910-47," South Asia Research 14 (1994): 10-35, 27.
14. Y. Guay, "Emergence of Basic Research on the Periphery: Organic Chemistry in India, 1907-1926," Scientometrics 10 (1986): 77-94, 87-88.
15. On the other side of the spectrum was the nationalist movement for technical education and institutions: Aparna Basu, "The Indian Response to Scientific and Technical Education in the Colonial Era, 1820-1920," in Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700-1947, ed. Deepak Kumar (Delhi, 1991);
16. Basu, "Technical Education in India, 1900-1920," Indian Economic and Social History Review 4 (1967): 361-74.
17. Pratik Chakrabarti, Western Science in Modern India: Metropolitan Methods, Colonial Practices (New Delhi, 2004), 146-214.
18. Ellen E. McDonald, "English Education and Social Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Bombay: A Case Study in the Transmission of a Cultural Ideal," Journal of Asian Studies 25 (1966): 455-60.
19. For a study of the emergence of the IMS, see Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India, Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859-1914 (Cambridge, UK, 1994), 6-35.
20. "Memorial from Certain Distinguished Scientists Advocating the Establishment of a Central Laboratory at Calcutta," 12 May 1897, File 723, L/PJ/6/445, APAC.
21. Reply from A. Godley, India Office, 21 March 1898, File 460, L/PJ/6/473, APAC.
22. In 1898, a similar request was refused by the secretary of state on the ground that the required sum of six lakhs of rupees could not be spared as it was the time of the Afghan wars. Hitavadi, a vernacular newspaper, commented, "It is a wonder that a man in the position of the Secretary of State has not hesitated to make such a reply. A Government unable to spare six lakhs for a beneficial object is wasting crores in foreign wars!" Hitavadi, 1 April 1898,
23. Report on Native Papers of Bengal Presidency, 1898, File 345, L/R/5/24, APAC. Bose's requests for assistance for his institute in 1917 were refused as well:
24. see "Application of Dr. J. C. Bose, CSI, CIE, for Certain Grants of Money to Enable Him to Carry Out His Scheme for a Research Institution in Furtherance of the Work in Which He Is Engaged," Department of Education, A, Proceedings, July 1917, Nos. 9-11, National Archives of India, New Delhi (hereafter cited as NAI).
25. Civil and Military Gazette, 17 April 1890, 4.
26. "A Bacteriological Department for India," British Medical Journal (BMJ) 1 (1897): 31-32.
27. Roger Jeffery, "Recognizing India's Doctors: The Institutionalization of Medical Dependency, 1918-1939," Modern Asian Studies 13 (1979): 301-26, 311.
28. As quoted in Mridula Ramanna, Western Medicine and Public Health in Colonial Bombay, 1845-1895 (New Delhi, 2002), 3.
29. Jeffery, "Recognizing India's Doctors" (cit. n. 23), 310.
30. Ramanna, Western Medicine and Public Health (cit. n. 24), 217-21.
31. Representation of the Bombay Medical Union to the Royal Commission on the Public Services in India (Bombay, 1913), 1-4.
32. Indian Medical Gazette (IMG), Oct. 1913, 396-99.
33. "Memorandum on the Present Position and Future Prospects of the Indian Medical Service," 1913/14, British Medical Association, Medical Appeal Board, 1, L/S&G/8/305, APAC.
34. Ibid. Memorandum on the Present Position and Future Prospects of the Indian Medical Service," 1913/14, British Medical Association
35. Ibid., Memorandum on the Present Position and Future Prospects of the Indian Medical Service," 1913/14, British Medical Association 11.
36. See Harrison, Public Health in British India (cit. n. 17), 60-98.
37. Arnold, "Colonial Medicine in Transition" (cit. n. 13), 24.
38. Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine, Souvenir, the Indian Empire, Being a Brief Description of the Chief Features of India and Its Medical and Sanitary Problems (Calcutta, 1927), 55.
39. Ibid., 58. Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine, Souvenir, the Indian Empire, Being a Brief Description of the Chief Features of India and Its Medical and Sanitary Problems
40. "Medical Research and Organisation," Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine (cit. n. 34), 102.
41. Ibid., "Medical Research and Organisation," Seventh Congress of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine 102-3.
42. Headed by Lord Inchcape (1922-23).
43. "Retrenchment in Expenditure on Medical Research in India," Dept. of Education, Health, and Lands, A, May 1925, Nos. 17-25, 9, NAI.
44. Dane Kennedy, The Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj (Berkeley, Calif., 1996).
45. Helen J. Power, "Sir Leonard Rogers FRS (1868-1962): Tropical Medicine and the Indian Medical Service" (PhD diss., Univ. of London, 1993), 148-49.
46. Harrison, Public Health in British India (cit. n. 17), 165.
47. Arnold, "Colonial Medicine in Transition" (cit. n. 13), 14.
48. BMJ 1 (1929): 1168-69. Rogers was the Indian correspondent for BMJ between 1898 and 1929.
49. "Notes on the Indian Medical Service, 1930," ROG/C.19/22, Leonard Rogers Papers, Manuscripts, Wellcome Library, London (hereafter cited as Rogers Papers).
50. "Proposed All India Research Institute" BMJ 1 (1920): 344.
51. Ibid. "Proposed All India Research Institute" (1920): 344
52. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research under the Government of India (Calcutta, 1929), 15-16.
53. Ibid., Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research under the Government of India 15.
54. "Retrenchment in Expenditure on Medical Research" (cit. n. 39), 7.
55. Joan Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher and the Origins of a Basic Biomedical Research Policy," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the M.R.C.: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee, ed. Joan Austoker and Linda Bryder (Oxford, 1989), 23-33.
56. Ibid., Joan Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher and the Origins of a Basic Biomedical Research Policy," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the M.R.C.: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee , (1989), 24.
57. Ibid., Joan Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher and the Origins of a Basic Biomedical Research Policy," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the M.R.C.: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee , (1989), 29-31.
58. Ibid., Joan Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher and the Origins of a Basic Biomedical Research Policy," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the M.R.C.: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee , (1989), 31-32.
59. Ibid., Joan Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher and the Origins of a Basic Biomedical Research Policy," in Historical Perspectives on the Role of the M.R.C.: Essays in the History of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and Its Predecessor, the Medical Research Committee , (1989), 28-29.
60. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research (cit. n. 48), 43.
61. Ibid. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research
62. Ibid., Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research44-45.
63. Ibid. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research
64. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885-1947 (New Delhi, 1989), 204-25.
65. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research (cit. n. 48), 45.
66. John F. Richards, "Environmental Changes in Dehra Dun Valley, India: 1880-1980," Mountain Research and Development 7 (1987): 299.
67. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research (cit. n. 48), 45.
68. Correspondence with Sir Walter Fletcher, Medical Research Council 1927-33," ROG/D.5/1-11/1, Rogers Papers. Rogers was a very influential figure. An IMS officer with a long medical career in India, a leading figure in tropical medicine and the founder of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, he was also the staunchest critic of the Indianization of IMS. After his retirement in 1921, he was appointed a member of the India Office Medical Board in 1922 and its president in 1928, with collateral duty as medical adviser to the secretary of state. He used this latter position along with his status as the Indian correspondent of BMJ to resist any move by the government or Indians to provide concessions to non-IMS medical practitioners.
69. George McRobert, "Rogers, Sir Leonard (1868-1962)," Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004).
70. Diary of Dr. Heiser's World Trip, 17 Oct. 1927 to 1 May 1928, 53-54, Rockefeller Archive Center, New York. Fletcher had forged a strong relationship between MRC and the Rockefeller Foundation, and in the interwar period the RF provided Britain with £2,500,000 for medical teaching and research.
71. Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher" (cit. n. 51), 28.
72. Report of the Committee on the Organization of Medical Research (cit. n. 48), 48-62.
73. "Public Health Institute Calcutta-Founded with Assistance from Rockefeller Foundation Central Medical Research Institute. Scheme in Abeyance of Fletcher Committee Report on the Organization of Medical Research," File 7B, 148, L/E/9/610, APAC.
74. Rogers to Graham, 17 Nov. 1927, ROG/A/55/76, Rogers Papers.
75. However, A. V. Hill, in his famous report on scientific research in India, was careful to point out the limits of this comparison. While mentioning that the MRC in the UK "has an extremely free hand" and that the "Indian Research Funds Association (IRFA) plays a rather similar role in India" he added: "Its [IRFA's] funds, however, are very scanty Because of its poverty it cannot take the same broad view of its functions as the MRC does: for example, to maintain even a single clinical research unit in one of the medical colleges would be financially out of the question until ampler funds are available." A Report to the Government of India on Scientific Research in India (London, 1944), 20-21.
76. Rogers, note, "Public Health Institute Calcutta" (cit. n. 67), E&O 6102, 1928, 6, File B, L/E/9/609.
77. Extract from Volume VIII, No. 1 of Standing Finance Committee, 29 Aug. 1928, L /E/9/610, APAC.
78. Turner, undersecretary of state, to Fletcher, India Office, 7 June 1929, 3449/28 E&O 6163, L/E/ 9 / 609, APAC.
79. Extract from Official Report of the Legislative Assembly Debates, 14 March 1929, 1843, L/E/ 9/610, APAC.
80. Ibid. Extract from Official Report of the Legislative Assembly Debates, 1929
81. "Copy of Extract from 'The Servant of India,' Poona, Thursday, 13 June 1929," 3449/28, 1-2, L / E / 9 / 609, APAC.
82. G. V. Deshmukh to Secretary of Dept. of Education, Health, and Lands, E&O 5586 1929, 16 May 1929, L/E /9/609, APAC.
83. Pamela Kanwar, Imperial Shimla: The Political Culture of the Raj (Delhi, 1990).
84. "Medical Research in India," Calcutta Medical Journal 23 (1929): 613-14, 613.
85. Ibid., "Medical Research in India," Calcutta Medical Journal 23 (1929) 613-14.
86. "Medical Research in India," reprinted from the Editorial, Bombay Chronicle, 4 June 1929, 2, E&O 5586/1929, L/E /9/609, APAC.
87. Ibid. "Medical Research in India," reprinted from the Editorial, Bombay Chronicle, 1929, 2
88. "Statesman," 7 Nov. 1929, "Medical Research in India;
89. I.M.S. Recruitment," New Delhi, 2359/21, L / E / 9 / 609, APAC.
90. Mehta to Shiels, 27 June 1929, 3-4, L/E/9/609, APAC.
91. Ibid., Mehta to Shiels, 8. 1929
92. Ibid., Mehta to Shiels, 9-10. 1929.
93. Leonard Rogers, note on the petition of an unofficial Bombay Medical Institute to postpone for further consideration the eleven-year-old scheme for a Central Research Laboratory of the Research Fund Association of India, 9 July 1929, 1, L/E/9/609, APAC.
94. Ibid., Leonard Rogers, note on the petition of an unofficial Bombay Medical Institute to postpone for further consideration the eleven-year-old scheme for a Central Research Laboratory of the Research Fund Association of India, 1-2. 1929
95. "Recruitment of Medical Research Workers, Recommendation of Fletcher Committee Regarding Setting up of Consultative Board in This Country," 25 Oct. 1929, E&O 6159, 1-2, L/E/9/609, APAC.
96. Leonard Rogers, note, "Proposal of the Fletcher Committee to Form a Consultative Committee at the India Office," 21 Oct. 1929, 1-2, L /E/9/609, APAC.
97. Extract from Official Report of the Bombay Legislative Council Debates, 8 Oct. 1929, 590, L/E/ 9 / 609, APAC.
98. Extract from the Council of State Debates, vol. 2, no. 2, "Hon'ble Sir Ibrahim Haroon Jaffer's resolution in connection with the location of the Central Medical Research Institute. The Council met in the Council Chamber," Simla, 17 Sept. 1929, E&O 9492, 2-3, L/E/9/609, APAC.
99. "Location of the Central Medical Research Institute at Dehra Dun," 7 Ian. 1930, E&O 9492/92, L/E/9/609 APAC
100. 5 Dec. 1929, E&O 9038; 6 Dec. 1929, E&O 9068; and 10 Dec. 1929, E&0 9168, L/E/9/609, APAC.
101. Mukund Ramrao layakar (1873-1959), barrister, member of Bombay Legislative Council and vice chancellor of Poona University.
102. Extract from the Legislative Assembly Debates, vol. 1, no. 12, 8 Feb. 1930, New Delhi, E&O 2919, 1,L/E/9/609, APAC.
103. Ibid., Extract from the Legislative Assembly Debates, vol. 1, no. 12, 8 3-4.
104. Ibid., Extract from the Legislative Assembly Debates, vol. 1, no. 12, 8 7.
105. Ibid., Extract from the Legislative Assembly Debates, vol. 1, no. 12, 8 8.
106. Roger to the Secretary of State, 29 April 1930, E&O 2919, 1, L/E/9/609, APAC.
107. Ibid., Roger to the Secretary of State, 4-5. 1930
108. Ibid., Roger to the Secretary of State 5., 1930
109. Hirtzel, handwritten note, 7 May 1930, E&O 2919, L/E/9/609, APAC.
110. "Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21 and 22 July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute and Other Matters," Calcutta, 1931, ii, V /27/850/4, APAC.
111. Ibid., "Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21 and 22 July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute and Other Matters," 9.
112. Ibid., "Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21 and 22 July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute and Other Matters," 109.
113. Ibid. "Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21 and 22 July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute and Other Matters,"
114. Ibid. "Proceedings of the Conference Held at Simla on the 21 and 22 July 1930 to Discuss the Location of the Proposed Central Medical Research Institute and Other Matters,"
115. "Notes on the Present Position of the Indian Medical Research Association in View of Recent Proposals for Reorganization," 6 June 1931, L/E/9/609, APAC.
116. Ibid..
117. Rogers, Minute Paper, Economic and Overseas Department, 1 May 1931, 2, L/E/9/609, APAC (emphasis in original).
118. Ibid., 1-2.
119. Rogers, note, 1 May 1931, 5, L/E/9/609, APAC, 9-10.
120. G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought (Berkeley, Calif., 1971).
121. Rogers to Secretary of State, 16 Feb. 1932, File 7B, 147, L/E/9/610, APAC.
122. Fletcher to Rogers, 8 May 1931 [Private, confidential], ROG/D.5 Rogers Papers. Bandarlog is "monkey-people" in Hindi, a racially derogatory term used by the British for Indians. Fletcher was known for his strong language and opinions and was sometimes "too trenchant in his denouncement of others.
123. " Quoted in Austoker, "Walter Morley Fletcher" (cit. n. 51), 24.
124. Fletcher to Rogers, 8 May 1931, ROG/D.5/1-11, Rogers Papers.
125. P. Willingdon, W. Chetwode, G. Raine, J. Crerar, G. E. Schuster, B. L. Mitter, Ahmad Said, and J. W. Bhore to Sir Samuel Hoare, 18 Jan. 1932, E&O 585, File 7B, 153-7, L/E/9/610, APAC.
126. Ibid., P. Willingdon, W. Chetwode, G. Raine, J. Crerar, G. E. Schuster, B. L. Mitter, Ahmad Said, and J. W. Bhore to Sir Samuel Hoare, 156. 1932
127. Ibid., P. Willingdon, W. Chetwode, G. Raine, J. Crerar, G. E. Schuster, B. L. Mitter, Ahmad Said, and J. W. Bhore to Sir Samuel Hoare, 1932 154-55.
128. Hill, Report to the Government of India (cit. n. 69), 17.
129. John Farley, To Cast out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913-1951) (New York, 2004).
130. Henry E. Sigerist, "Medical Care for All the People," Canadian Journal of Public Health 35 (1944): 253-67
131. Henry E. Sigerist, Socialised Medicine in the Soviet Union (London, 1937).
132. Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, "What Was Social Medicine? An Historiographical Essay," Journal of Historical Sociology 1 (1998): 92-93.
133. The SMA was responsible for instituting the postwar National Health Service in Britain, despite opposition from the BMA. See John Stewart, "The Battle for Health": A Political History of the Socialist Medical Association, 1930-51 (Aldershot, UK, 1999). 126
134. Stewart, "Socialist Proposals for Health Reform in Inter-War Britain: The Case of Somerville Hastings," Medical History 39 (1995): 338-57.
135. Ghosh to Sigerist, 23 March 1941, "Correspondences with Dr Kamala Ghosh, 1941-43," folder 176, box 5, Henry Sigerist Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, MS 788, Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn. (hereafter cited as Sigerist Papers).
136. Ghosh to Sigerist, 23 July 1941, folder 176, box 5, Sigerist Papers.
137. Ghosh to Sigerist, 19 Oct. 1942, folder 176, box 5, Sigerist Papers.
138. Bimala Wallis to Dr. Charlotte Silverman, 9 July 1943, folder 176, box 5, Sigerist Papers.
139. Report on India, folder 74, 1, box 35, Sigerist Papers.
140. Ibid., Report on India, folder 74, 2.
141. Ibid., Report on India, folder 74, 9.
142. Ibid., Report on India, folder 74, 10.
143. Sunil S. Amrith, Decolonizing International Health: India and Southeast Asia, 1930-65 (Basingstoke, UK, 2006), 61. 136
144. Bidyut Chakrabarty, "Jawaharlal Nehru and Planning, 1938-41: India at the Crossroads," Modern Asian Studies 26 (1992): 277-78.
145. National Planning Committee, Subcommittee on National Health Report (Bombay, 1948).
146. Debabar Banerji, "The Politics of Underdevelopment of Health: The People and Health Service Development in India;
147. A Brief Overview," International Journal of Health Services 34 (2004): 127.
148. He ended his report on India saying, "[W]e may expect great events when Gandhi dies and when two million soldiers return from the war." Report, 15, folder 74, box 35, Sigerist Papers. For a study of the differences between Gandhi and Nehru over the NPC
149. see, Chakrabarty, "Jawaharlal Nehru and Planning" (cit. n. 136), 282-85
150. "Correspondences with Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1951-54," folder 808, box 22, Sigerist Papers.
151. Nasir Tyabji, "Gaining Technical Know-How in an Unequal World: Penicillin Manufacture in Nehru's India," Technology and Culture 45 (2004): 331-49.
152. Sokhey to Sigerist, 25 Sept. 1951, folder 808, box 22, Sigerist Papers.
153. Ibid. Sokhey to Sigerist, 1951
154. Sokhey to Sigerist, 10 Aug. 1953, folder 808, box 22, Sigerist Papers.
155. Sokhey to Sigerist, 14 Oct. 1953, folder 808, box 22, Sigerist Papers.
156. Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 2001), 2. 147 "Correspondences with Dr. Mahendra Bhatt," 1947-48, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers
157. Bhatt to Sigerist, 25 Nov. 1947, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
158. Annual Report for the Department of Public Health, United State of Saurashtra, Rajkot, for the Year Ending 1st March 1949, 6-7, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
159. Bhatt to Sigerist, 25 Dec. 1950, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
160. Bhatt to Sigerist, 13 May 1953, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
161. Sigerist to Bhatt, 3 Jan. 1952,
162. Bhatt to Sigerist, 13 May 1953, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
163. Bhatt to Sigerist, 28 Sept. 1954, folder 317, box 8, Sigerist Papers.
164. Arnold, "Colonial Medicine in Transition" (cit. n. 13), 29-30.
165. Report of the Health Survey and Development Committee (Delhi, 1946).
166. Indian Council of Medical Research: A Review of the Activities during the Years 1950-57 (New Delhi, 1957), 33.
167. Ibid., Indian Council of Medical Research: A Review of the Activities during the Years 1950-57 34. 1957
168. Ibid., Indian Council of Medical Research: A Review of the Activities during the Years 1950-57 35. 1957
169. "Mr MK Gandhi, in Opening the Tibb College," Indian Medical Record, Aug. 1921, 184-85, 185.
170. Ravi Duggal, "Health and Development in India: Moving towards Right to Healthcare," mimeo (2003), Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT), Mumbai.