Goodbye soft money, hello grassroots: How campaign finance reform restructured campaigns and the political world

Catholic University Law Review

Volumn 58, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 965-1025

  Maccieery, Laura ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 70449717649     PISSN: 00088390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (443)

1. Simon Rosenberg, Foreword to JEROME ARMSTRONG & MARKOS MOULITSAS, Crashing the Gate: Netroots, Grassroots, and the Rise of People-Powered Politics, at xii (2006).
2. See, e.g., SEAN WILENTZ, THE AGE OF REAGAN: A HISTORY, 1974-2008 (2008).
3. See, e.g., Mark Schmitt, Can Money be a Force for Good? The Revolutionary Potential of Small-Donor Democracy, AM. PROSPECT, Feb. 4, 2009, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=can-money-be-a-force-for-good.
4. Id.; see also Thomas E. Mann, A Collapse of the Campaign Finance Regime?, FORUM, Vol. 6, Issue 1, Art. 1, at 1-4 (2008);
5. Bradley A. Smith, Obama's Huge Haul Should End This Fight, WASH. Post, Oct. 26, 2008, at B1.
6. Fred Wertheimer, More Money, More Problems, DEMOCRACY J., June 4, 2007, at 77, 78-79.
7. See Smith, supra note 4, at B1.
8. Wertheimer, supra note 5, at 81-82.
9. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-155, tit. I, 116 Stat. 81.
10. Seth Gitell, The Democratic Party Suicide Bill, ATLANTIC MONTHLY, July/August 2003, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200307/gitell.
11. Id.
12. Thomas E. Mann, Money in the 2008 Elections: Bad News or Good?, CHAUTAUQUAN Daily, July 1, 2008.
13. The Change Election: Money, Mobilization, and Persuasion in the 2008 Federal Elections 36 (David B. Magleby ed., 2009).
14. See, e.g., Gitell, supra note 9.
15. See, e.g., PETER FRANCIA ET AL., THE FINANCIERS OF CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS 29-41 (2003). By comparing data from the Congressional Donors Survey, the 1996 American National Election Study, and the Census, Peter Francia and his co-authors concluded that the population of partisan donors has long been dominated by white, wealthy, highly-educated men who are middle-aged and older, and generally of non-Evangelical Protestant religious affiliation.
16. Id. at 29-33. This group has been more readily tapped by Republican candidates.
17. Id. at 37.
18. See David B. Magleby, Rolling in the Dough: The Continued Surge in Individual Contributions to Presidential Candidates and Party Committees, FORUM, Vol. 6, Issue 1, Art. 5, at 10 (2008) ("Contrary to the speculation of some prior to the implementation of BCRA, the soft money ban did not 'short-circuit the efforts... to revitalize political parties.'").
19. Norman Ornstein & Anthony Corrado, Jr., Reform That Has Really Paid Off, WASH. POST, Mar. 31, 2007, at B3;
20. see also Magleby, supra note 15, at 1.
21. Magleby, supra note 15, at 1.
22. Press Release, Fed. Election Comm'n, Party Financial Activity Summarized for the 2008 Election Cycle: Party Support for Candidates Increases (May 28, 2009), available at http://www.fec.gov/press2009/05282009Party/20090528Party. shtml. Please note that these figures have been rounded for the reader's convenience.
23. For just one example of the press coverage regarding Clinton's clear early advantage, see Harold Meyerson, How Hillary's Done It-So Far, AM. PROSPECT, Nov. 19, 2007, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles? article=how-hillarys-done-it-so-far.
24. Tim Fernholz, What to Expect When You 're Expecting a Majority, Am. PROSPECT, Oct. 1, 2008 (quoting Brian Wolff), available at http://www.prospect. org/cs/articles?article=what-to- expect-when-youre-expecting-a-majority.
25. Id.
26. See, e.g., ARMSTRONG & MOULITSAS, supra note 1, at 136;
27. Powerpoint Presentation by Micah Sifry, The Making of the President 2.0: How the Process Changed in 2008, http://www.slideshare.net/Msifry/the-making-of- the-president-20-how-the-internet-is-changing- the-political-game-presentation.
28. Paul S. Hermson, Party Leadership and Party Organizational Change, in POLITICS, Professionalism, and Power: Modern Party Organization and the Legacy of Ray C. BLISS 186, 194 (John C. Green ed., 1994).
29. Id. at 194-99;
30. BROOKS JACKSON, HONEST GRAFT: BIG MONEY AND THE AMERICAN POLITICAL PROCESS 53-54 (Alfred A. Knopf ed., 1988).
31. Herrnson, supra note 23, at 195.
32. Id.
33. Id.
34. Id.
35. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 53-54.
36. Center for Responsive Politics, Party Fundraising Totals by Cycle, http://www.open secretsorg/bigpicture/ptytots.php?cycle=2006 (last visited May 12, 2009).
37. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 54.
38. See id. at 53.
39. Id. at 54.
40. Robert Kuttner, Ass Backward, New REPUBLIC, Apr. 22, 1985, at 18.
41. Id.
42. Philip a. Klinkner, The losing Parties: Out-Party National Committees 1956-1993, at 26 (1994).
43. See JACKSON, supra note 24, at 53-54.
44. Susan B. Glasser, Campaign Committees Set Early Cash Records, WASH. POST, Oct. 17, 1999, at A1.
45. See generally DAVID VOGEL, FLUCTUATING FORTUNES: THE POLITICAL POWER OF business in America chs. 7, 8 (1989).
46. See Gregg Easterbrook, The Business of Politics, ATLANTIC MONTHLY, Oct. 1986, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/polibig/eastbusi.htm.
47. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 54.
48. Jeffrey H. Birnbaum, The money Men: The Real Story of Fund-raising's Influence on Political Power in America 31, 36 (2000). Between 1974 and 1982, the number of PACs organized by business and labor unions increased from 608 to 2601. In 1992, the number of PACs reached 4195.
49. Id. at 36.
50. See JACKSON, supra note 24, at 53-54;
51. Easterbrook, supra note 40.
52. Easterbrook, supra note 40, at 3.
53. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 76-77.
54. Id.
55. Id.
56. Id. at 77.
57. Susan Mandel, How the Democrats Hold on to Congress, NAT'L REV., Nov. 24, 1989, available at http://findarticles.come/p/articles/mi-m1282/is-n22-v41/ai- 8134929/pg-6.
58. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 69.
59. Easterbrook, supra note 40, at 5.
60. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 165-66.
61. Todd S. Purdum, Democrats Appear Vulnerable in Senate Races, N. Y. TIMES, Oct. 4, 1998, at A1.
62. David E. Rosenbaum, Will the Gore Campaign's New Chief be a Boon or a Burden?, N. Y. TIMES, May 15, 1999, at A12.
63. See Convicted Lawmakers Should Lose Their Pensions, OAKLAND TRIB., Jan. 19, 2007.
64. See id.; Thomas Mann & Norman J. Ornstein, The Broken Branch: How Congress is Failing America and how to Get it back on Track 76-77 (2006).
65. Mann & Ornstein, supra note 56, at 75.
66. Id.
67. Id. at 75-76.
68. Id. at 64, 76. For a detailed account of congressional corruption and associated scandal during the late 1970s to early 1990s
69. see id. at 75-80.
70. Id. at 76.
71. Id. at 77.
72. Id. The Savings and Loan scandal centered on a Democratic-leaning sector of the financial industry; for a detailed account of the crisis, see generally Paul Zane PILZER and Robert Deitz, Other People's Money: The inside Story of the S&L mess (Simon and Schuster 1989);
73. STEPHEN PIZZO ET AL., INSIDE JOB: THE LOOTING OF AMERICA'S SAVINGS AND LOANS (McGraw-Hill 1989);
74. MICHAEL WALDMAN, WHO ROBBED AMERICA? A CITIZEN'S Guide to the S&L Scandal (Random House 1990);
75. Lawrence J. White, The S&L Debacle: Public Policy Lessons for Bank and Thrift Regulation (Oxford Univ. Press 1991).
76. See Dennis F. Thompson, Mediated Corruption: The Case of the Keating Five, 87 AM. Pol. SCI. Rev. 369-70 (1993).
77. Associated Press, Findings of Keating Five, FoxNEWS.COM, Mar. 23, 2008, http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Mar23/0, 4670, McCainKeatingFiveHighlights, 00.html.
78. See Thompson, supra note 64, at 369-70.
79. Mann & Ornstein, supra note 56, at 77-79.
80. L. Paige Whitaker, Cong. Research Serv., Campaign Finance: Constitutional and Legal Issues of Soft Money 5 (Mar. 31, 2004), available at http://www.usembassy.at/en/download/pdf/soft-money.pdf.
81. Id.
82. Dan Froomkin, Campaign Finance Special Report: Soft Money - A Look at the Loopholes, WASH. POST (Sept. 4, 1998), available at http://www.washingtonpost. com/wp-srv/politics/special/campfin/intro4.htm.
83. Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) Amendments of 1979, Pub. L. No. 96-187, 93 Stat. 1339, 1340-42
84. (codified at 2 U. S. C. § 431 (2006)).
85. See Federal Election Commission Advisory Opinion 1978-10.
86. Froomkin, supra note 70.
87. Anthony Corrado et al., The New Campaign Finance Sourcebook 64 (Brookings Inst. Press 2005).
88. See TREVOR POTTER ET AL., THE CAMPAIGN LEGAL CTR., THE CAMPAIGN FINANCE GUIDE (2009), available at http://www.campaignfinanceguide.org/guide-34.html [hereinafter FECA GUIDE].
89. Id.
90. Frank J. Sorauf, What Buckley Wrought, in IF BUCKLEY FELL 11, 21 (E. Joshua Rosenkranz ed., 1999). Soft money figures prior to 1991 are estimated. For updated figures on the 1991-92 election cycle, see http://www.opensecrets. org.
91. Dan Clawson et al., Dollars and Votes: How Business Campaign Contributions Subvert Democracy 124 (Temple Univ. Press ed., 1998).
92. McConnell v. FEC, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176, 497 (D. D. C. 2003) (Kollar-Kotelly, J., mem.).
93. Id. at 498.
94. Id. (quoting a statement of the Chairman Emeritus of United Airlines).
95. McConnell v. FEC, 540 U. S. 95, 147 (2003).
96. Sorauf, supra note 77, at 21. In this Part, soft money figures before 1991 are estimated. For updated figures on the 1991-92 election cycle, see http://www.opensecrets.org. Sorauf attributes increased political competition in the early 1990s to two primary factors. First, the number of open seat contests increased due to redistricting following the 1990 census and public outcry over incumbency.
97. Id. at 16. Second, as Republicans came to believe in the possibility of taking over Congress, electoral stakes intensified.
98. Id. at 17.
99. Id at 16-18.
100. Id. at 21.
101. Id.
102. Id.
103. See FECA GUIDE, supra note 75.
104. Center for Responsive Politics, Party Fundraising Totals by Cycle, http://www.open secrets.org/bigpicture/ptytots.php?cycle=2-6 (last visited Aug. 19, 2009).
105. Id.
106. Id.
107. Justin Pritchard, From the House to the Big House, MOTHER JONES, Jan. 1, 1998, available at http://www.motherjones.com/news/outfront/1998/01/pritchard. html. Representative Albert Bustamante (D-TX) was convicted of racketeering and bribery; Representative Nicholas Mavroules (D-MA) pleaded guilty to tax fraud and accepting gratuities while in office; and Representative Larry Smith (D-FL) was convicted of tax evasion. Id.
108. See id.
109. Perotsystems.com, Ross Perot-Chairman Emeritus of the Board, http://www.perot systems.com/About/Executives/CorporateLeadership/Ross-Perot (last visited Aug. 19, 2009).
110. Michael Waldman, a Return to Common Sense: Seven Bold Ways to REVITALIZE DEMOCRACY 77-78 (2008) (reciting a story from inside the Clinton White House about Congress's failure to enact the pending campaign finance reform bill).
111. See generally RICHARD E. COHEN, ROSTENKOWSKI: THE PURSUIT OF POWER AND THE END of THE Old POLITICS (Ivan R. Dee ed., 2000).
112. See Wertheimer, supra note 5, at 79.
113. Zachary Roth, How to Finish Off the GOP Machine: The Machiavellian Case for Public Financing of Elections, WASH. MONTHLY, June 1, 2007, available at http://www.washingtonmon thly.com/features/2007/0701.roth.html.
114. Raymond J. La Raja, Small Change: money, Political Parties, and Campaign Finance Reform 151 (2008).
115. See supra note 10 and accompanying text.
116. McConnell v. FEC, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176, 671 (D. D. C. 2003) (Kollar-Kotelly, J., mem.).
117. Declaration of Senator Warren Rudman, at 3 n. 7
118. McConnell, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176 (No. 02-0582).
119. Fred Lucas, New Clinton Scandal Mirrors "Chinagale, "Say Analysts, CNSNEWS.COM, Sept. 3, 2007, http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/ article.aspx?RsrcID=31399.
120. Id. In 1997, President Clinton admitted to inviting major campaign donors to stay overnight in the White House, and the Clintons are reported to have hosted 404 overnight guests. Id
121. Gitell, supra note 9.
122. Glasser, supra note 38.
123. Id. Some of the first donations were more than double the asking price and came from two large labor organizations: the Communications Workers of America, and American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees. Id. Early subscribers also included AT&T, the founder of Price Club, and a wealthy Texan law firm. Id. To attract large donations from wealthy donors, the DCCC also traded on personal attention from Kennedy and influential Democratic legislators such as Gephardt. Id.
124. See Pritchard, supra note 92.
125. See Robert Biersack & Melanie Haskell, Spitting on the Umpire: Political Parties, the Federal Election Campaign Act, and the 1996 Campaigns, in FINANCING THE 1996 ELECTION 155, 173 (John C. Green ed., 1999).
126. The Tony Coelho Factor, WASH. TIMES, Jan. 18, 2006, http://www.washtimes. com/news/2006/jan/l 7/20060117-092150-3845r/.
127. Id.
128. See SourceWatch, K Street Project, http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php? title=K-Street-Project (last visited Aug. 19, 2009).
129. Waldman, supra note 95, at 64 (2008)
130. (citing David Maraniss & Michael Weisskopf, Speaker and His Directors Make the Cash Flow Right, WASH. POST, Nov. 27, 1995, at A1).
131. Casey Byrne Knudsen Dominguez & Kathryn Pearson, ig Dollars, but How Much Change?: An Analysis of Soft Money Donors Post-BCRA (Apr. 7, 2005) (unpublished manuscript), available at http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p-mla- apa-research-citation/0/8/5/8/5/p8585 l-index.html.
132. See Center for Responsive Politics, Party Fundraising Totals by Cycle, http://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/ptytots.php?cycle=2006 (last visited Aug. 10, 2009).
133. See Biersack & Haskell, supra note 109, at 155-56;
134. Diane Dwyre & Robin Kolodny, Throwing Out the Rule Book: Party Financing of the 2000 Elections, in FINANCING THE 2000 ELECTION 133, 133-34 (David B. Magleby ed., 2002).
135. See, e.g., Robert B. Reich, Why Business Should Love Gore, AM. PROSPECT, Jul. 31, 2000, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=why- business-should-love-gore.
136. Tom Diemer, Welfare Reform Bill a Necessity for Clinton, CLEVELAND PLAIN DEALER, Aug. 2, 1996, at 8A.
137. Center for Responsive Politics, Party Fundraising Totals by Cycle, supra note 115.
138. Id.
139. See id. Please note that these figures have been rounded.
140. Wertheimer, supra note 5, at 78-79.
141. Roth, supra note 98.
142. See WALDMAN, supra note 95, at 77-78 (reciting a story from inside the Clinton White House about Congress's failure to enact the pending campaign finance reform bill).
143. Wertheimer, supra note 5, at 79.
144. Id. at 80.
145. Id. at 81.
146. WALDMAN, supra note 95, at 77-78.
147. Roth, supra note 98.
148. Gitell, supra note 9.
149. Timothy J. Burger, Hillary, Dem Shout it Out at Capitol, DAILY NEWS, July 19, 2002, available at http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2002/07/l 9/2002-07-19-hillary-dem- shout-it-out-at.html.
150. Gitell, supra note 9.
151. Id.
152. See Motion of the Committee for Economic Development for Leave to File, McConnell v. FEC, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176 (D. D. C. 2003) (No. 02-582), aff d in part, rev'd in part, 540 U. S. 93 (2003).
153. Gitell, supra note 9, at 109;
154. Dominguez & Pearson, supra note 114.
155. See FECA GUIDE, supra note 75.
156. For this section of the article, I am heavily indebted to Monica Youn of the Brennan Center for Justice and draw extensively on the amicus brief submitted in the pending challenge to BCRA brought by the RNC. Republican Nat'l Comm. v. FEC, Civ. No. 08-1953 (D. D. C. filed Nov. 13, 2008).
157. McConnell v. FEC, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176, 183 (D. D. C. 2003).
158. Id. at 767 n. 29
159. (Leon, J., mem.) (quoting Colo. Republican Fed. Campaign Comm'n v. FEC, 518 U. S. 604, 616 (1996))
160. Aff'd in part, rev'd in part, 540 U. S. 93 (2003).
161. McConnell v. FEC, 540 U. S. 93, 146 (2003).
162. Declaration of Alan K. Simpson ¶ 7, McConnell, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176 (No. 02-582);
163. see also Donald P. Green, Report of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 16 (2002) ("Under the pre-BCRA provisions, the parties demonstrated great ingenuity in moving money around so as to minimize the amount of hard money needed to fund federal election activity.").
164. GREEN, supra note 141, at 28 (citing HANDBOOK OF CRIMINOLOGY 1062 (Daniel Glasered., 1974)).
165. McConnell, 540 U. S. at 155.
166. Id. at 153.
167. McConnell, 251 F. Supp. 2d at 488 (Kollar-Kotelly, J., mem.) ("Donors or their lobbyists often inform a particular Senator that they have made a large donation." (quoting Declaration of Senator John McCain, Oct. 4, 2002)). As Professor Green explained: "When donors make soft money donations to parties on behalf of candidates, neither the donors nor the parties have any incentive to hide this fact from the candidates...."
168. GREEN, supra note 141, at 28.
169. McCotmell, 251 F. Supp. 2d at 515 (Kollar-Kotelly, J., mem.).
170. Id. at 684 (citation omitted) (quoting 145 CONG. REC. S12, 593 (daily ed. Oct. 14, 1999) (statement of Sen. Feingold));
171. see also Nixon v. Shrink Mo. Gov't PAC, 528 U. S. 377, 390 (2000)
172. ("Democracy works 'only if the people have faith in those who govern, and that faith is bound to be shattered when high officials and their appointees engage in activities which arouse suspicions of malfeasance and corruption. '" (quoting United States v. Miss. Valley Generating Co., 364 U. S. 520, 562 (1961)));
173. Report of Thomas E. Mann, Sept. 20, 2002, at 32 ("[S]ince most of the largest soft-money donors had high stakes in decisions made by Washington policymakers, the public has a substantial basis for its concerns about conflicts of interest and corruption of the policy process.").
174. McConnell, 251 F. Supp. 2d at 683 (Kollar-Kotelly, J., mem.). Mellman and Wirthlin's survey found that seventy-one percent of those polled believe that members of Congress make decisions based on what the big contributors to their party want, even if it is not what their constituents want or what the member thinks is in the best interests of the country. Id. An even greater percentage, eighty-four percent, believe that members are more likely to listen to large party contributors because of their contributions, and sixty-eight percent think that big contributors to political parties have blocked decisions by the federal government that could improve people's everyday lives. Id. The poll also reflects that the public perceives that their views are given less attention than those of large contributors. Eighty-one percent of those polled believe that the views of those corporations, unions, interest groups or individuals who donate $50, 000 or more to a political party would likely receive special consideration from members of Congress, while only twenty-four percent believe a member is "likely to give the opinion from someone like them special consideration. "
175. Id. (citations omitted). Additionally, a Zogby poll of 301 business executives found that seventy-three percent agreed "that BCRA's prohibition on soft money was good for both them personally and for the country." Megan King, Business Likes Soft-Money Ban, But Wants More, ROLL CALL, Apr. 6, 2005;
176. see also David M. Primo & Jeffrey Milyo, Campaign Finance Laws and Political Efficacy, 5 ELECTION L. J. 23, 33 (2006) (arguing that limits on campaign contributions by organizations have a statistically significant positive effect on public opinion, as does public disclosure of campaign contributions).
177. Raymond J. La Raja, Breaking Up the Party: How McConnell Downsizes Party Campaigns, 3 ELECTION L. J., 271, 271 (2004).
178. See Michael J. Malbin & Sean A. Cain, Campaign Finance Institute, The Ups and Downs of Small and Large Donors: An Analysis of Pre- and post-bcra Contributions to Federal Candidates and Parties, 1999-2000, at 4 (2007) (describing BCRA's effect on small donor contributions).
179. Anthony Corrado, National Party Fundraising Remains Strong, Despite Ban on Soft Money, THE BROOKINGS INST., May 19, 2004, http://www.brookings.edu/ papers/2004/0519 campaignfinancereform-corrado.aspx?p=1.
180. Id.
181. Id.
182. David B. Magleby & Kelly D. Patterson, War Games: Issues and Resources in the Battle for Control of Congress, in WAR GAMES: ISSUES AND RESOURCES IN THE BATTLE FOR CONTROL OF CONGRESS 1, 43 (David B. Magleby & Kelly D. Patterson eds., 2007), available at http://csed.byu.edu/Assets/Pew/ 2006%20Monograph.pdf.
183. Id. at 43 tbl. 1-1. Please note that these figures have been rounded.
184. Id. Please note that these figures have been rounded.
185. Id. at 19 (emphasis added).
186. Magleby, supra note 15, at 9.
187. Magleby & Patterson, supra note 154, at 20.
188. Id at 33.
189. Thomas E. Mann & Norman J. Ornstein, Separating Myth from Reality in McConnell v. FEC, 3 ELECTION L. J. 291, 295 (2004).
190. Anthony Corrado & Katie Varney, Party Money in the 2006 Elections: The Role of National Party Committees in Financing Congressional Campaigns 1 (2007).
191. Id.
192. Id. at 7.
193. See Magleby, supra note 15, at 1-2;
194. Press Release, Fed. Election Comm'n, Party Financial Activity Summarized for the 2006 Election Cycle (Mar. 7, 2007), available at http://www.fec.gov/ press/press2007/partyfinal2006/20070307party.shtml (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
195. Anthony Corrado & Thomas Mann, Despite Predictions, BCRA has Not Been a Democratic 'Suicide Bill', ROLL CALL, July 26, 2004, available at http://www.rollcall.com/issues/50-12/guest/6363-l.html.
196. Id.
197. see also Sidney M. Milkis, Parties Versus Interest Groups, in INSIDE THE Campaign Finance Battle 40, 40 (Anthony Corrado et al. eds., 2003) (anticipating that BCRA would wither political parties' finances);
198. Gitell, supra note 9.
199. Magleby, supra note 15, at 8-9 (tracking amounts and proportions of individual contributions to national party committees across election cycles);
200. see also Anthony Corrado, Party Finance in the Wake of BCRA, in THE ELECTION AFTER REFORM: MONEY, POLITICS, AND THE BIPARTISAN CAMPAIGN REFORM ACT 25 (Michael J. Malbin ed., 2006) (noting that the sum of individual contributions to party organizations in 2004 was more than the sum of hard- and soft-money contributions in the 2000 election cycle).
201. Magleby & Patterson, supra note 154, at 20.
202. Id at 43.
203. See Stephen Weissman & Ruth Hassan, BCRA and the 527 Groups, in THE ELECTION AFTER REFORM 79, 79-80 (Michael J. Malbin ed., 2006).
204. See id.
205. Robert G. Boatright et al., Interest Groups and Advocacy Organizations After BCRA, in THE ELECTION AFTER REFORM 112, 113-14, 132 (Michael J. Malbin ed., 2006).
206. Id at 132.
207. See INSTITUTE FOR POLITICS, DEMOCRACY & THE INTERNET, SMALL DONORS AND Online Giving: A Study of donors to the 2004 Presidential Campaigns 43 (2006) [hereinafter 2004 CAMPAIGN DONOR Study], available at http://www.ipdi.org/UploadedFiies/Small%20Donors%20Report.pdf.
208. Id at 18.
209. Id.
210. Gitell, supra note 9.
211. Id.
212. See id. at 113.
213. Id.
214. Paul Farhi, Small Donors Grow into Big Political Force: Both Parties See Number of Contributions Soaring, WASH. POST, May 3, 2004, at A1.
215. Adam Nagourney, 1The '08 Campaign: Sea Change for Politics As We Know It, N. Y. Times, Nov. 4, 2008, at A1.
216. Magleby, supra note 15, at 5 (citations omitted).
217. ARMSTRONG & MOULITSAS, supra note 1, at 134;
218. see also Joshua Green, The Amazing Money Machine, ATLANTIC MONTHLY, June 2008, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200806/obama-finance (recognizing role of McCain-Feingold in small donor and networking push).
219. Al From & Bruce Reed, The Real Soul of the Democratic Party, DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP COUNCIL, May 15, 2003, http://www.ndol.org/ndol-ci.cfm? contentid=251690&kaid=l.
220. See Sam Stein, DNC Memo: This is the 50-State Strategy Realized, HUFFINGTON POST, Nov. 6, 2008, http://hufringtonpost.eom/2008/l l/06/dnc-memo-we-deserve-some-n-141878.html (last visited Aug. 17, 2009);
221. see also Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81 (2002).
222. Armstrong & moulitsas, supra note 1, at 137-38.
223. See Democratic Nat'l Comm., The 50-State Strategy, http://www.democrats. org/a/2006/09/50-state-strate-17.php (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
224. Sam Stein, Obama and Dean Team Up to Recast the Political Map, HUFFINGTON POST, June 5, 2008, http://www.huffington post.com/2008/06/05/obama-and-dean- team-up-to-n-105419.html.
225. Stein, supra note 189.
226. Democratic Nat'l Comm., supra note 189.
227. Stein, supra note 187.
228. See David Paul Kuhn, DNC Blunts GOP Microtargeting Lead, POLITICO, May 24, 2008, available at http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0508/10573.html.
229. See David B. Magleby & Kelly D. Patterson, Stepping out of the Shadows? Ground War Activity in 2004, in THE ELECTION AFTER REFORM 161, 171 (Michael J. Malbin ed., 2006).
230. Id. at 164.
231. Id.
232. See Magleby, supra note 15, at 8-11.
233. Richard L. Hasen, Political Equality, the Internet, and Campaign Finance Regulation, FORUM, 1Vol. 6, Issue 1, Art. 7 at 1 (2008), available at http://www.bepress.com/forurn/vol6/iss1/art7/;
234. see also Clyde Wilcox, Internet Fund-raising in 2008: A New Model?, FORUM, Vol. 6, Issue 1, Art. 6, at 1 (2008), available at http://www.bepress. com/forum/vol6/issl/art6/ ("[I]t is possible that internet fundraising will have a more profound impact on who contributes, and how they become involved in politics.").
235. MALBIN & CAIN, supra note 150, at 8.
236. -2004 Campaign Donor Study, supra note 175, at 41-43.
237. Id. at 1.
238. Id at 43.
239. Green, supra note 141.
240. -2004 Campaign Donor Study, supra note 175, at 5, 39.
241. MALBIN & CAIN, supra note 150, at 4.
242. Magleby & Patterson, supra note 194, at 20.
243. Nagourney, supra note 183.
244. Press Release, Campaign Finance Inst., Obama's Small Contributions Surged in June, but McCain's Party-Based Strategy Gave the GOP Side a Combined Cash Advantage on June 30 (July 22, 2008), available at http://www.cfinst.org/pr/ prrelease.aspx?releaseid=201.
245. THE CHANGE ELECTION, supra note 12, at 19 (citations omitted).
246. See generally Roger Simon, Relentless: How Barack Obama Outsmarted Hillary Clinton, POLITICO, Aug. 25, 2008, available at http://www.politico.com/ relentless/.
247. Magleby, supra note 15, at 7.
248. Jose Antonio Vargas, Obama Raised Half a Billion Online, CLICKOCRACY, http://voices.washingtonpost.com/44/2008/ll/20/obama-raised-half-a-billion-on. html.
249. Center for Responsive Politics, Summary Data for Hillary Clinton, http://www.open secrets.org/pres08/summary.php?id=N00000019 ("She started 2007 as the candidate to beat in the money race, [raising $229.4 million through the end of May,] but Obama surpassed her early in 2008. Clinton left the race with $22.5 million in debt, at least $11.4 million of which came from her own pocket.").
250. Center for Responsive Politics, Summary Data for Mitt Romney, http://www.open secrets.org/pres08/summary.php?id=n00000286 (noting that Romney's fund-raising dropped off after February 2007, which suggests that his use of personal wealth to outspend opponents did not translate into a persuasive campaign).
251. Hasen, supra note 198.
252. Micah L. Sifry, Getting the Download from Joe Trippi, TECHPRESIDENT, Mar. 30. 2008, www.techpresident.com.
253. Green, supra note 141.
254. Michael J. Malbin, Campaign Finance Inst., Small donors, Large Donors AND THE INTERNET: THE CASE FOR PUBLIC FINANCING AFTER OBAMA 11 (2009).
255. Id.
256. Id at 16 tbl.3.
257. Id.
258. Id.
259. Id.
260. See id.
261. See Fed. Election Comm'n, Presidential Campaign Finance: Contributions to All Candidates by State, http://www.fec.gov/DisclosureSearch/mapApp. do (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
262. See Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Jan. 31, 2009), http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/dcdev/ forms/C00010603/401047/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
263. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Apr. 3, 2008), http://images.nictasa.com/pdC001/28931030001/28931030001. pdflmav panes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
264. See Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Apr. 6, 2009), http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/dcdev/ forms/C00003418/411034/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
265. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements for Republican National Committee (filed Feb. 2, 2008), http://irnages.nictusa. com/pdf7001/2899044 0001/28990440001.pdf#navpanes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
266. See Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed May 13, 2009), http://images.nictusa.com/pdf/677/ 29933747677/29933747677.pdf#navpanes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
267. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Feb. 17, 2009), http://images.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/fecimg/?-29020104312+0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
268. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Jan. 30, 2009), http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/dcdev/forms/C00075820/ 399911/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
269. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed May 16, 2008), http://images.nictusa.com/pdf/402/28020240402/28020240402. pdf#navpanes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
270. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Jan. 31, 2008) http://images.nictusa.com/pdf/952/28020021952/28020021952. pdf#navpanes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
271. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Jan. 31, 2008), http://images.nictusa.com/pdf/618/28930311618/ 28930311618.pdf#navpanes=0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
272. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements (filed Jan. 31, 2008), http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/dcdev/forms/C00000935/ 320116/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
273. Fed. Election Comm'n, FEC Form 3X: Report of Receipts and Disbursements for National Republican Senatorial Committee (filed Jan. 30, 2009), http://images.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/fecimg/?-29020061294+0 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
274. Associated Press, Obama Raises $10 Million After Palin Speech, MSNBC, Sept. 4, 2008, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26551384/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
275. Nagourney, supra note 183.
276. Jonathan D. Salant, Obama's Army of E-mail Backers Gives Him Clout to Sway Congress, BLOOMBERG, Dec. 1, 2008, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid= 20601087& sid=aEVXKOC3s8.k (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
277. People's March for Justice!, 69 Million Americans Voted for Obama, http://peoplesmarchforjustice.org/?page-id=25 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
278. Salant, supra note 231 (noting that conservative activist Richard Viguerie said that such a list "could be life-changing for American politics").
279. The Change Election, supra note 12, at 18.
280. MALBIN, supra note 218.
281. Patrick McDonald, Barack Obama's Slippery Fund-Raising Slope, L. A. WKLY., Oct. 30, 2008, available at http://www.laweekly.com/2008-10-30/news/ barack-obama-39-s-slippery- fund-raising-slope.
282. Michael Luo & Griff Palmer, In Fine Print, a Proliferation of Large Donors, N. Y. TIMES, Oct. 21, 2008, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/ 21/us/politics/21 donate.html.
283. Id.
284. McDonald, supra note 235.
285. White House for Sale, PUBLIC CITIZEN, http://www.whitehouseforsale.org (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
286. Matthew Mosk, McCain Able to Skirt Limits of Federal Financing, WASH. POST, Sept. 17, 2008, at A4.
287. MALBIN, supra note 218, at 16.
288. Mosk, supra note 240.
289. Stein, supra note 189.
290. Greg Gordon, With Her Donors Tapped Out, Clinton Turns to the Internet, McClatchy Newspapers, May 4, 2008, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/homepage/story/ 35793.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
291. Matthew Mosk, Obama Rewriting Rules for Raising Campaign Money Online, WASH. POST, Mar. 28, 2008, at A6 (noting that the goal of the campaign was to "build an online relationship" with donors and volunteers).
292. See Editorial, The Cost of Clinton's Narcissism, GLOBE & MAIL, June 4, 2008;
293. Gordon, supra note 244.
294. For a nuanced review of successes and failures of MyBarackObama.com
295. see Patrick Ruffini, The Secret of My. BarackObama.com? Egroups!, TECHPRESIDENT, July 12, 2008, http://techpresident.com/taxonomy/term/4017 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009). For a critique of campaigns' use of volunteers recruited through the Internet
296. see http://rasmuskleisnielsen.net/2009/03/31/the-labors-of-internet- assisted-activism-overcommunication-miscommunication-and- communicative- overload/ (Mar. 31, 2009).
297. See Sifry, supra note 22.
298. Nancy Benac, AP Impact: The People in Obama's Army of Small Donors, SEATTLE TIMES, May 8, 2008, available at http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/ politics/2004400992 -apobamasarmy.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
299. Saul Alinsky, Rules for Radicals (Vintage 1971);
300. Benac, supra note 249 (noting Michael Malbin's observation about Alinsky's principles).
301. ALINSKY, supra note 250.
302. Transcript, Brennan Center for Justice, Money in Politics 2009: New Horizons for Reform Conference (May 8, 2009), at 20 (on file with author) (comments of Norm Eisen, White House Special Counsel).
303. Zack Exley, Obama Field Organizers Plot a Miracle, HUFFINGTON POST, Aug. 27, 2007, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/zack-exley/obama-field-organizers-pl-b- 61918.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
304. See Camp Obama, http://campobama.blogspot.com/ (last visited Aug. 30, 2009);
305. Karim Bardeesy; see also Marshall Ganz: Lighting a Fire, THE CITIZEN, Feb. 12, 2008, available at http://harvardcitizen.com/2008/02/12/marshall-ganz- lighting-a-fire/.
306. Micah Sifry, Marshall Ganz on the Future of the Obama Movement, TECHPRESIDENT, Nov. 20, 2008, http://techpresident.com/node/6545 (last visited Aug. 30, 2009).
307. Lloyd Grove, World According to... David Plouffe, PORTFOLIO, Dec. 11, 2008, http://www.portfolio.com/views/columns/the-world-according-to/2008/12/ll/ David-PloufTe- Interview (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
308. Id.
309. Id.
310. See generally Sifry, supra note 22.
311. Micah Sifty, LiveBlogging from Berkman: Organizing in an Age of Surplus Powerfulness, TECHPRESIDENT, Dec. 10, 2008, http://techpresident.com/node/6597
312. Gin, Television, and Social Surplus, http://www.herecomeseverybody.org/ 2008/04/looking-for-the- mouse.html (Apr. 26, 2008, 10:48 EST).
313. Gin, Television, and Social Surplus, supra note 260.
314. MALBIN, supra note 218, at 14.
315. Transcript, Brennan Center for Justice, supra note 252.
316. Id.
317. Id.
318. Leslie Wayne, A Fund-Raising Rainmaker Arises Online, N. Y. TIMES, Nov. 29, 2007, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/l l/29/us/politics/29actblue. html.
319. See Emily Cadei, ActBlue "s Greener Pastures, CQ WEEKLY, Feb. 9, 2009 (reporting that Actblue raised $1 million for the 2004 election and $16 million for the 2006 election);
320. Mark Schmitt, Can Money be a Force for Good?, AM. PROSPECT, Feb. 4, 2009, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=can-money-be-a-force- for-good (reporting that Actblue has raised $83 million in total since its creation in 2004). In calculating the $66 million result, the money that Actblue raised for the 2004 and 2006 election cycles was subtracted from the total amount of money that Actblue has raised since its inception.
321. Democratic Fundraising on ActBlue Tops $50 Million, ACTBLUE, June 10, 2008, http:/blog.actblue.comVblog/2008/06/democratic-fund.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
322. Id.
323. About ActBlue, ACTBLUE, http://www.actblue.com/about (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
324. Compl. for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief at 1, 3, 5, 7, Republican Nat'l Comm. v. FEC, No. 08-1953 (D. D. C. filed Nov. 13, 2008).
325. Compl. for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief at 1-2, Cao v. FEC, No. 08-4887 (E. D. La. filed Nov. 13, 2008).
326. Compl. for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief, supra note 271, at 11, 13.
327. See supra Part III. A.
328. Mem. of Points and Authorities of the Brennan Center for Justice at NYU School of Law, Common Cause, Demos, League of Women Voters of the United States, and the U. S. Public Interest Research Group as Amici Curiae Opposing Plaintiffs Motion for Summary Judgment at 5-8, Republican Nat 'l Comm., No. 08-1953.
329. Republican Nat 'l Comm., No. 08-1953.
330. Id.
331. Editorial, A Threat to McCain-Feingold, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 12, 2009, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/12/opinion/12monl.html.
332. Republican Nat'l Comm., No. 08-1953.
333. Alexander Mooney, GOP Warned to Embrace Technology or Face 'Suicide,' CNNPOLITICS, Dec. 12, 2008, http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/12/12/gop. technology/index.html (last visited Aug. 30, 2009).
334. Center for Responsive Politics, Pharmaceuticals/Health Products: Money to Congress, Mar. 2, 2009, http://www.opensecrets.org/industries/summary.php?ind= H04&recipdetail=A&sort order=U&cycle=2008 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
335. Eliza Krigman, Drug Industry Dough Shifting to Dems, CENTER FOR RESPONSIVE POLITICS, Oct. 14, 2008, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2008/10/ drug-industry-dough- shifting-t.html;
336. see also Center for Responsive Politics, Pharmaceuticals/Health Products: Long- Term Contribution Trends, Mar. 2, 2009, http://www.opensecrets.org/ industries/indus.php?cycle=2008&ind=H04 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
337. Center for Responsive Politics, Pfizer Inc: Summary, May 12, 2009, http://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/summary.php?id=D000000138 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
338. Robert Pear, Drug Industry, Having Long Smiled on G. O. P., Now Splits Donations Equally, N. Y. TIMES, Oct. 13, 2008, at A1 8.
339. Id.
340. Center for Responsive Politics, 2008 Overview: Totals by Sector, http://www.open secrets.org/overview/sectors.php (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
341. Nicole Albertson, Nat'l inst. on Money in State politics, Names in the News:
342. American International Group, (2008), available at http://www. followtheraoney.org/press/Reports/NN-AIG2008Update-Final.pdf;
343. see also Eric Umansky & Sharona Courts, Gov't-Owned AIG: We're Still Lobbying!, ProPUBLICA, Oct. 10, 2008, http://www.propublica.org/article/govt- owned-aig-were-still-lobbying-1010 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
344. Center for Responsive Politics, AIG: Summary, http://www.opensecrets.org/ orgs/summary.php?id=D000000123 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
345. Posting of Adam Doster to Progress Illinois, http://progressillinois.com/ 2009/4/29/durbin-banks-own-the-place (Apr. 29, 2009, 14:00 EST);
346. see also Kevin Drawbaugh, Awash in Bank Money, Washington Faces Reform Test, REUTERS, Nov. 18, 2008, http://www.reuters.com/aiticle/vcCandidateFeed2/ idUSTRE4AH6R02008U18 (last visited Aug. 20, 2009);
347. Lindsey Renick Mayer & Eliza Krigman, Races to Watch IX: Wall Street's Favorite Candidates, CENTER FOR Responsive POLITICS, Oct. 9, 2008, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2008/09/races-to-watch-v-lobbyists-fav.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2009).
348. Bill Moyers Journal, (PBS television broadcast May 8, 2009), available at http://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/05082009/transcriptl.html (interview with Senator Durbin).
349. Stephen Labaton, Ailing, Banks Still Field Strong Lobby at Capitol, N. Y. TIMES, June 5, 12009, at A1.
350. Id.
351. Id.
352. Simon Johnson, The Quiet Coup, ATLANTIC, May 2009, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200905/imf-advice.
353. Id.
354. Andrew boyle & Laura MacCleery, Brennan Center for justice, Spring AWAKENING (2009) (citing Johnson, supra note 294), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/blog/archives/spring-awakening-the-case-for- corporate-disclosure-of-political-contributio/.
355. Id.
356. Johnson, supra note 294.
357. Id.
358. Ezra Klein, Can We Save This Village?, WASH. POST, June 26, 2009, available at http://voices.washingtonpost.com/ezra-klein/2009/06/can-we-save- this-village.html.
359. Michael J. Malbin, Political Parties Under the Post-McConnell Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, 3 ELECTION L. J. 177, 179 (2004).
360. See Fair Elections Now Act, S. 752, 111th Cong. (2009);
361. Fair Elections Now Act, H. R. 1826, 111th Cong. (2009).
362. See S. 752 § 101 (b);
363. H. R. 1826 § 101 (b).
364. See S. 752 § 101 (b);
365. H. R. 1826 § 101 (b).
366. Eliza Newlin Carney, Campaign Finance Reform Finds Unlikely Allies: Some Prominent Conservative And Business Groups Are Joining The Cause, NAT'L J., Mar. 16, 2009, available at http://www.nationaljournal.com/njonline/no-20090316- 8535.php (last visited Aug. 21, 2009);
367. Bara Vaida, Lobbyists Backing Campaign Finance Reform, NAT'L J., Mar. 25, 2009, available at http://undertheinfluence.nationaljournal.com/2009/03/ lobbyists-backing-campaign- fin. php#more (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
368. See S. 752 § 102;
369. H. R. 1826 § 102.
370. See S. 752 § 102;
371. H. R. 1826 § 102.
372. Beth A. Rotman & James Talbert-Slagle, The Citizens' Election Program: Creating Change in the Land of Steady Habits, Jan. 26, 2009, http://www.ct.gov/seec/cwp/view.asp? a=3556&q=432196 (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
373. Ariz. Citizens Clean Elections Comm'n, 2008 Annual Report 8 (2009), available at http://www.azcleanelections.gov/Libraries/2007-2008-docs/Annual- Report.sflb.ashx.
374. Maine Clean Election Act: Overview of Participation Rates and Payments 2000-2008, at 1 (2009), available at http://www.maine.gov/ethics/pdf/ publications/2008-rncea-overview.pdf.
375. Ariz. Citizens Clean Elections Comm'n, 2000-2006 Election demographics, http://www.azcleanelections.gov/Libraries/2005-2006-docs/Election-Demographics. sflb.ashx (last visited Aug. 30, 2009);
376. MAINE CLEAN ELECTION ACT, supra note 310, at 1.
377. See, e.g., Rotman & Talbert-Slagle, supra note 308.
378. See, e.g., NANCY WATZMAN, PUBLIC CAMPAIGN, ALL OVER THE MAP: SMALL Donors Bring diversity to Arizona's Elections 1 (2008), available at http://www.publicampaign.org/sites/www.publicampaign.org/files/ %20aotm-report-05-20-08-final-w eb.pdf.
379. CIARA TORRES-SPELLISCY ET AL., BRENNAN CENTER FOR JUSTICE, ELECTORAL Competition and Low Contribution Limits 11 (2009).
380. Id.
381. Id.
382. Zachary Proulx, Brennan Center for Justice, Public Financing and Competitiveness in Maine Senate Elections 2-3 (2009).
383. Id.
384. See, e.g., Laura MacCleery, Parallel Public Financing System? Not Quite, But Don't Lose Hope, HUFFINGTON POST, Apr. 15, 2008, http://www.huffingtonpost. com/laura-maccleery/parallel-public-financing-b-96763.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009);
385. Laura MacCleery & Andrew Stengel, Presidential Public Financing, Extreme Makeover Edition, HUFFINGTON POST, May 7, 2008, http://www. huffingtonpost.com/laura-maccleery-and-andrew-stengel/presidential-public- fundi-b-100691.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
386. Obama Opts Out of Public Financing, June 19, 2008, USA TODAY http://blogs.usatoday.Com/onpolitics/2008/06/obama-opts-out.html#more (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
387. Mosk, supra note 240;
388. Press Release, Public Citizen, "Mega-donors" Pump Millions Into McCain's Presidential Campaign, Public Citizen Analysis Shows, July 18, 2008, http://www.citizen.org/pressroom/release.cfm?ID=2699 (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
389. MALBIN, supra note 218, at 6-8.
390. Id.
391. Id. at 5-6.
392. Id. at 5.
393. Id.
394. Id. at 2.
395. Editorial, Campaign Spending. PHILLY.COM, Oct. 22, 2008.
396. Brody Mullins & T. W. Farnam, After Costly Race, Groups Aim to Alter Public Financing for Presidential Runs, WALL ST. J., Nov. 10, 2008, at A6, available at http://online. wsj.com/article/SB122627565397112081.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
397. Kenneth P. Doyle, Public Financing: Reform Groups Push Revised Proposal to Revamp Presidential Campaign System, in BNA MONEY & POLITICS REPORT (2008).
398. Mullins & Farnam, supra note 329.
399. Doyle, supra note 330;
400. Alexander Bolton, Groups Press Obama on Campaign Finance Reform, THE Hill, Nov. 6, 2008, available at http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/groups- press- obama-on-campaign-finance-reforrn-2008-1 l-06.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
401. Andrew M. Scott, The Progressive Era in Perspective, 21 J. POL. 685, 701 (1959);
402. Reva B. Siegel, She the People: The Nineteenth Amendment, Sex Equality, Federalism and the Family, 115 HARV. L. REV. 947, 1008 (2002).
403. Richard L. McCormick, The Discovery that Business Corrupts Politics: A Reappraisal of the Origins of Progressivism, 86 AM. HIST. REV. 247, 252 (1981).
404. Benjamin Parker DeWitt, The Progressive Movement 4-5 (1915).
405. ANTHONY CORRADO ET AL., THE NEW CAMPAIGN FINANCE SOURCEBOOK 7-10 (Brookings Inst. Press 2005).
406. Id. at 10-11.
407. Id at 11-12.
408. Id. at 12-13.
409. Id. at 13.
410. Id.
411. R. Sam Garrett, Cong, research Serv., rl 33814, CRS report to Congress: Public Financing of Congressional Elections, Background and Analysis 10-11 (2007).
412. CORRADO ET AL., supra note 336, at 13.
413. DEWITT, supra note 335, at 5.
414. See MORLEY WlNOGRAD & MICHAEL D. HAIS, MILLENNIAL MAKEOVER: MYSPACE, YOUTUBE, AND THE FUTURE OF AMERICAN POLITICS 4 (2008).
415. Zogby International, Zogby Poll: Voters Not Sold on Government Bailout, Sept. 21, 2008, http://www.zogby.com/search/ReadNews.cfm?ID=1555 (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
416. Lake Research Partners & The Tarrance Group, Memorandum, National Polling on Support for a Proposal to Tackle Big Money in Congressional Elections, Feb. 2009, available at http://www.commoncause.org/atf/ cfy%7Bfb3c17e2-cdd1-4df6-92bebd4429893665%7D/POLLIN G%20MEMO%20FEB%202009%20FINAL.PDF.
417. Jeffrey M. Jones, Campaign Financing Appears to Be Non-Issue for Voters, GALLUP, Oct. 30, 2008, http://www.gallup.com/poll/111652/Campaign-Financing- Appears-NonIssue- Voters.aspx (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
418. Micah Sifry, OF A 2.0 Still a Work in (Hidden) Progress, TECHPRESIDENT, Dec. 15, 2008, http://techpresident.com/node/6612 (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
419. John Halpin & Ruy Teixeira, Progressivism Goes Mainstream, AM. PROSPECT, Apr. 20, 2009 (citing two new studies that show progressive values characterize the views of more than two-thirds of Americans), available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=progressivism- goesjnainstream.
420. Peter L. Francia & Paul S. Hermson, The Impact of Public Finance Laws on Fund- raising in State Legislative Election, 31 AM. POL. RESEARCH 520, 531 (2003), available at http://apr.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/31/5/520.
421. Id. The study included data from candidates who participated in partial public funding programs in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Hawaii. However, such data does not include the time spent by candidates in a hybrid model because of the significant differences between those programs and the hybrid model. The partial funding programs in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Hawaii function essentially as government subsidies providing candidates with a modest grant without additional matching funds. In contrast, the hybrid models in New York City and the proposed FENA bill provide a significant grant plus matching funds that supercharge small contributions.
422. Jeanne Cummings, 2008 Campaign Costliest in U. S. History, POLITICO, Nov. 5, 2008, available at http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15283.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
423. Kenneth P. Doyle, Record-Shattering $1.8 Billion Cost for '08 Presidential Campaign, FEC Says, in BNA MONEY & POLITICS REPORT (2009);
424. Cummings, supra note 353.
425. See, e.g., Hasen, supra note 198, at 5-6.
426. It appears that the Obama Administration is interested in exploring new modes of public accountability and interaction.
427. See, e.g., Ari Melber, The President's Never-Ending Virtual Town Hall, THE NATION, Mar. 27, 2009, http://www.thenation. com/doc/20090413/melber (last visited Aug. 21, 2009);
428. Presidential Memorandum on Transparency and Open Government, Jan. 21, 2009, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/Transparency-and- Open- Government/ (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
429. For an even broader view of this agenda
430. see Stuart Comstock-Gay & Joe Goldman, More Than the Vote, AM. PROSPECT, Dec. 12, 2008, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles? article=more-than-the-vote;
431. Bob Edgar, A 21st Century Agenda for Democratic Renewal, AM. PROSPECT, Dec. 15, 2008, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=a- 21stcentury-agenda-for-democratic-renewal;
432. Larry Marx, A Broader Definition of Democracy, AM. PROSPECT, Dec. 15, 2008, available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=a-broader- definition-of-democracy.
433. For another, related approach, see Schmitt, supra note 3.
434. But see Wertheimer, supra note 5 (demonstrating that public financing can only work in a system of rules).
435. TORRES-SPELLISCY ETAL., supra note 314, at 1-2.
436. A call to focus on small donor reforms is also reflected in recent work by Michael Malbin of CFI. See, e.g., MALBIN, supra note 218, at 11, 14, 21;
437. Michael J. Malbin, Rethinking the Campaign Finance Agenda, FORUM, Vol., 6, Issue 1, Art. 3 (2008), http://www.cfinst.org/books-reports/Participation/ Malbin-Rethinking.pdf (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
438. -424 U. S. 1, 65 n. 76 (1976);
439. see also Ciara Torres-Spelliscy, Justices Should Know by Now-Money Is Not Speech, SEATTLE POST-lNTELLIGENCER, June 10, 2008, available at http://www.seattlepi.com/opinion/366105-focus08.html (last visited Aug. 21, 2009).
440. Tim Arango, Broadcast TV Faces Struggle to Stay Viable, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 27, 2009, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/28/business/media/ 28network.html?ref=todays paper.
441. Torres-Spelliscy, supra note 361.
442. Green, supra note 185.
443. JACKSON, supra note 24, at 109.