Securitization and desecuritization: Female soldiers and the reconstruction of women in post-conflict Sierra Leone

Security Studies

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 241-261

  MacKenzie, Megan ^a  

^a VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 70449591877     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410902900061     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Sanam Anderlini and Dyan Mazurana, Boys and Girls Who Also Carried Guns: Forgotten in the Peace, International Herald Tribune, oped, 12 March 2004.
2. Dehegue Shiaka, Sulay Sesay, Edward Abu, and Joseph Momo, interview by Megan MacKenzie, December 2005, Freetown, Sierra Leone.
3. Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR), Women, War, Peace and Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR), WomenWarPeace, accessed at http://www.womenwarpeace.org/node/4.
4. The disarmament processes in other African countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique were very similar to the model used in Sierra Leone. In these cases, the DDR was also viewed as an essential element in the transition from war to peace.
5. Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security (New York and London: Zed Books, 2001), 37.
6. See Charli Carpenter, Innocent Women and Children: Gender Norms and the Protection of Civilians (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006).
7. See Laura Sjoberg, Gender, Justice, and the Wars in Iraq: A Feminist Reformulation of Just War Theory (New York: Lexington Books, 2006).
8. See Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder Colorado: Lynne Rienner Press, 1998); and Barry Buzan and Ole Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security (London: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
9. Lene Hansen, Security As Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War (London: Routledge, 2006),35.
10. Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars, 16.
11. Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars, 2.
12. Hansen, Security As Practice, 31.
13. See The World Bank, Sierra Leone: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) in 'The World Bank's Engagement Africa Region,' Good Practice Infobrief, World Bank, no. 81, October 2002, accessed at http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings/infobeng/infob81.pdf.
14. These estimates were confirmed by Sulay Sesay (Information and Sensitization Unit Manager, DDR/ Project Manager, Capacity Development in Sierra Leone). Interview with Sulay Sesay, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 16 December 2005. See also Anderlini and Mazurana, Boys and Girls Who Also Carried Guns.
15. Dyan Mazurana and Kristopher Carlson, From Combat to Community: Women and Girls of Sierra Leone (Massachusetts and Washington: Women Waging Peace, 2004).
16. The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls in West and Central Africa and the UNICEF Response, UNICEF, February 2005, accessed at http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Impactfinal.pdf.
17. Sierra Leone: Rape and Other Forms of Sexual Violence Against Girls and Women, Amnesty International, 29 June 2000, accessed at http://asiapacific.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR510352000?open &of=ENG-SLE.
18. War-related SexualViolence in Sierra Leone: A Population Based Survey, Physicians for Human Rights (Washington: Physicians for Human Rights, January 2002).
19. Gender Profile Sierra Leone, AFROL News, accessed at http://www.afrol.com/Categories/Women/profiles/sierraleonewomen.htm.
20. Sierra Leone's War: Women the Worst Losers, We The Women, accessed at http://www.wethewomen.org/entry/help-war-time-sexual-abused-sierra-leones-woman.
21. Mazurana and Carlson, From Combat to Community, 21.
22. Mazurana and Carlson, From Combat to Community, 21.
23. Susan McKay and Dyan Mazurana, Where Are the Girls? Girls in Fighting forces in Uganda, Sierra Leone and Mozambique: Their Lives During and After the War (Ottawa, Canada: Rights and Democracy, 2004),114.
24. The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls, UNICEF.
25. The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls, UNICEF, 17.
26. Jennifer Turpin, Many Faces: Women Confronting War, in The Women and War Reader, eds., Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 3-19, 32.
27. Francine D'Amico, Feminist Perspectives on Women Warriors, in The Woman and War Reader, ed. Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 119-26.
28. Charli Carpenter, Innocent Women and Children: Gender Norms and the Protection of Civilians (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006).
29. See Rawwida Baksh, Linda Etchart, Elsie Onubogu, and Tina Johnson, ed., Gender Mainstreaming in Conflict Transformation: Building Sustainable Peace (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002).
30. See Mary Daly, Pure Lust: Elemental Feminist Philosophy (London: The Women's Press, 1984); and Sara Ruddick, Maternal Thinking (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
31. April Carter, Should Women Be Soldiers or Pacifists? in The Woman and War Reader, eds., Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 33-41.
32. See Christine Sylvester, Feminist International Relations: An Unfinished Journey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)
33. Christine Sylvester and Swati Parashar, The Contemporary 'Mahabharata' and the Many 'Draupadis,' paper prepared for presentation at the 2008 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, San Francisco, CA, 26-29 March 2008; Laura Sjoberg, Gender, Justice, and the Wars in Iraq (New York: Lexington Books, 2006); and Laura Sjoberg and Caron Gentry, Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women's Violence in Global Politics (London: Zed Books, 2007).
34. Patricia T. Morris, Women, Resistance, and the Use of Force in South Africa in Women and the Use of Military Force, eds., Ruth H. Howes and Michael R. Stevenson (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993).
35. Interviews were conducted in confidentiality, and the names of interviewees 1 through 50 are withheld by mutual agreement), interviews by Megan MacKenzie, 12 November-20 December 2005.
36. Interviewee 28, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
37. Interviewee 14, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
38. Andrea Ferrero (Country Director for Cooperazione Internazionale (COOPI), Sierra Leone-an organization that helped run the DDR), interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 30 November 2005.
39. Interviewee 8, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 13 December 2005.
40. Interviewees 44, 12, 38, 9, 21, 22, 33, 4, 18, 39, 2, 25, 42, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 13-15 December 2005.
41. Edward Anague, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 28 November 2005.
42. Interviewee 15, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
43. Interviewee 1, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 12 December 2005.
44. Interviewee 42, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
45. Interviewee 44, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
46. Interviewee 37, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 12 December 2005.
47. Interviewee 12, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
48. Interviewee 8, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 14 December 2005.
49. Interviewee 19, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
50. Interviewee 25, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
51. The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls in West and Central Africa and the UNICEF Response, UNICEF.
52. Interviewee 23, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 14 December 2005.
53. Interviewee 17, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 14 December 2005.
54. Interviewee 49, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
55. Interviewee 1, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
56. Interviewee 25, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
57. Interviewee 16, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 11 December 2005.
58. Interviewee 18, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 13 December 2005.
59. Interviewee 1, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
60. Interviewee 14, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
61. Interviewee 14, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
62. Interviewee 14, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
63. Father Joseph Momoh, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 20 December 2005.
64. Interviewee 42, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
65. Interviewee 23, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
66. Interviewee 43, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
67. Interviewee 42, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 15 December 2005.
68. Interviewee 19, 42, 43, 26 interviews by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 14-15 December 2005.
69. Ferrero, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 30 November 2005.
70. Glenis Taylor (Project Officer for Child Protection, UNICEF, Freetown), interview by Megan MacKenzie, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 2 December 2005.
71. Vivi Stavrou, Breaking the Silence: Girls Abducted During Armed Conflict in Angola, final report, Canadian International Development Agency and the Christian Children's Fund, September 2003-March 2005.
72. Hansen, Security as Practice, 99.
73. Susan Shelper, Les Filles-Soldats: Trajectoires d'apresguerre en Sierra Leone, Politique Africaine 88 (December 2002): 49-62.
74. Interviewee 42, interview by Megan MacKenzie, Makeni, Sierra Leone, 16 December 2005.
75. See Shelper, Les Filles-Soldats, 49-62.
76. Baldi Giulia and Megan MacKenzie, Silent Identities: Children Born of War in Sierra Leone, in Born of War, ed. R. Charli Carpenter (Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, 2007), 78-94.
77. Jacqueline Stevens, Reproducing the State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 22.
78. Lene Hansen, Security as Practice, 21.
79. Although there are varying definitions and conceptions of human security, this concept generally refers to an understanding of security that extends beyond a traditional militarized and nationalistic definition. For example, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) defines human security as: Human security can be said to have two main aspects. It means, first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease and repression. And second, it means protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life-whether in homes, in jobs or in communities. Such threats can exist at all levels of national income and development. Human Development Report 1994, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), (New York: Oxford University Press), 23, accessed at http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1994/.
80. Carolyn Nordstrom, Girls Behind the (Front) Lines, in The Women and War Reader, eds., Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: NYU Press, 1998), 81.