Beyond border security: Feminist approaches to human trafficking

Security Studies

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 319-344

  Lobasz, Jennifer K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 70449585177     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410902900020     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Brian Iselin, Addressing the Challenge to Security from the Trafficking in Human Beings (paper presented at the OSCE-Thailand Conference on the Human Dimension of Security, Bangkok, 20-21 June 2002).
2. The Copenhagen School refers to the body of work in international relations inspired by Barry Buzan's 1983 People, States, and Fear. See Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for Internatiosnal Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1991.
3. See also Barry Buzan et al., eds., Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter Publishers, 1993)
4. Barry Buzan, Jap de Wilde, and Ole Wæver, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998)
5. Ole Wæver, Securitization and Desecuritization, in On Security, ed. Ronnie Lipschutz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). For feminist criticism of the Copenhagen School, see
6. Lene Hansen, The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma and the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School, Millennium Journal of International Studies 29, no. 2 (2000): 285-306.
7. Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams, Broadening the Agenda of Security Studies: Politics and Methods, Mershon International Studies Review 40, no. 2 (1996)
8. Jessica Tuchman Mathews, Redefining Security, Foreign Affairs 68, no. 2 (1989).
9. A small number of notable calls to rethink the concept of security preceded the end of the Cold War, notably Arnold Wolfers, 'National Security' As an Ambiguous Symbol, Political Science Quarterly 67, no. 4 (1952)
10. Richard. H. Ullman, Redefining Security, International Security 8, no. 1 (1983).
11. Subsequent references to trafficking should be understood to mean international human trafficking, sometimes called trafficking in persons, rather than drug, arms, or any other kind of trafficking. While human trafficking is often understood as requiring the movement of persons, such movement need not involve crossing an international border. That said, the academic and policy literature distinguish between domestic and international human trafficking. International agreements such as the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, which includes the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, apply specifically to the transnational traffic in persons. See
12. th Session, Official Document, Supplement 49, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, UN General Assembly Resolution 25, Annex II, A/45/49, 2001. http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/Conventions/dcatoc/final documents 2/convention_%20tr_aff_eng.pdf. While domestic human trafficking is also an important issue, I restrict my focus here to trafficking across international borders in accordance with the UN definition and in order to highlight aspects such as national security and the human rights of transnational migrants that are specific to international trafficking.
13. This should not be taken to mean that there is only one set of feminist approaches to international human trafficking. The goal of this table is to characterize what the feminist approaches share in common and to distinguish them from traditional security frameworks.
14. It should be noted that while this is not a uniquely feminist argument, feminists were the first to widely insist upon protecting the human rights of trafficked persons, especially in regard to women and children trafficked into prostitution. See
15. Kathleen Barry, Female Sexual Slavery (New York: New York University Press, 1979).
16. J. Ann Tickner, Gendering World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press 2001), 48.
17. United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
18. United Nations Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now, (New York: United Nations, 2003).
19. See also Special Issue on Human Security, Security Dialogue 35, no. 3 (2004). For criticism of human security, see
20. Roland Paris, Human Security: Paradigm Shift or Hot Air? International Security 26, no. 2 (2001): 87-102.
21. Barry Buzan, What is Human Security? A Reductionist, Idealistic Notion that Adds Little Analytical Value, Security Dialogue 35, no. 3 (2004): 369-70. While there is much overlap in the principles of advocacy for human security and against human trafficking, there has yet to be significant overlap within political movements. Key documents establishing the human security framework do include trafficking as a grave threat to, in the words of the UN Commission on Human Security, people on the move, but the specific language of human security is much less prevalent in the anti-trafficking movement than in the language of human rights. For notable exceptions, see
22. H. Richard Friman and Simon Reich, eds., Human Trafficking, Human Security, and the Balkans (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007)
23. Michelle Anne Clark, Trafficking in Persons: An Issue of Human Security, Journal of Human Development 4, no. 2 (2003): 247-63.
24. Ann D. Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol, (Washington, DC: International Human Rights Law Group, 2002), 9-10.
25. Donna M. Hughes, The 'Natasha' Trade: The Transnational Shadow Market of Trafficking in Women, Journal of International Affairs 53, no. 2 (2000): 634.
26. Galma Jahic and James O. Finckenauer, Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking, Trends in Organized Crime 8, no. 3 (2005): 24-40
27. Frank Laczko and Marco A. Gramegna, Developing Better Indicators of Human Trafficking, Brown Journal of World Affairs 10, no. 1 (2003): 179-94.
28. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Data Comparison Sheets, http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1963.
29. Nora Demleitner, The Law at a Crossroads: The Construction of Migrant Women Trafficked into Prostitution, in Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives, ed. David Kyle and Rey Koslowski (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001)
30. James O. Finckenauer, Russian Transnational Organized Crime and Human Trafficking, in Global Human Smuggling
31. Liz Kelly, 'You Can Find Anything You Want': A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe, Special Issue on Human Trafficking, International Migration 43, nos. 1-2 (2005): 235-65.
32. Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovkis, Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking, International Migration 43, nos. 1-2 (2005): 17-34.
33. Tom Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006)
34. Eileen Scully, Pre-Cold War Traffic in Sexual Labor and Its Foes: Some Contemporary Lessons, in Global Human Smuggling
35. Joel Quirk, Trafficked into Slavery, Journal of Human Rights 6 (2007): 181-207.
36. Hughes, The 'Natasha' Trade: The Transnational Shadow Market of Trafficking in Women.
37. Frank Laczko, Introduction, Special Issue on Human Trafficking, International Migration 43, nos. 1-2 (2005): 5-16
38. Elzbieta M. Gozdziak and Elizabeth A. Collett, Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of Literature, Special Issue on Human Trafficking, International Migration 43, nos. 1-2 (2005): 99-128.
39. David Kyle and Rey Koslowski, eds., Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 2001), 5.
40. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad (Washington, DC: GPO, 2006), 37-39.
41. Laczko, Introduction to Special Issue on Human Trafficking.
42. Kelly, 'You Can Find Anything You Want,' 236.
43. Joanna Apap, Peter Cullen, and Felicita Medved, Counteracting Human Trafficking: Protecting the Victims of Trafficking (paper presented at the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Brussels, 18-20 September 2002), 8
44. Willy Bruggeman, Illegal Immigration and Trafficking in Human Beings Seen as a Security Problem for Europe (paper presented at the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Brussels, 18-20 September 2002).
45. GAO, A Strategic Framework Could Help Enhance the Interagency Collaboration Needed to Effectively Combat Trafficking Crimes (Washington, DC: GPO, 2007), 18. The Department of Homeland Security's interest in combating human trafficking is closely connected to its interest in preventing all unauthorized border crossing of, for example, terrorists.
46. This convention is known as the Palermo Convention after the Italian city in which it was signed.
47. Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol.
48. Ann Gallagher, Trafficking, Smuggling and Human Rights: Tricks and Treaties, Forced Migration Review 12 (2002): 936.
49. Apap, Cullen, and Medved, Counteracting Human Trafficking, 7.
50. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, Fighting Trafficking in Human Beings: An Integrated Approach and Proposals for an Action Plan, http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2005:0514:FIN:EN:PDF.
51. Bales, Understanding Global Slavery, 135.
52. See Anna M. Agathangelou, The Global Political Economy of Sex: Desire, Violence, and Insecurity in Mediterranean Nation States (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
53. Fiona B. Adamson, Crossing Borders: International Migration and National Security, International Security 31, no. 1 (2006): 165.
54. Commission of the European Communities, Fighting Trafficking in Human Beings.
55. Apap, Cullen, and Medved, Counteracting Human Trafficking, 6-7, International Labor Organization, Forced Labor, Child Labor, and Human Trafficking in Europe: An ILO Perspective (paper presented at the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Geneva, 18-22 September 2002).
56. George Katrougalos, The Rights of Foreigners and Immigrants in Europe: Recent Trends, Web Journal of Current Legal Issues, http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles5/katart5.html
57. Wyn Rees, Organised Crime, Security and the European Union (draft paper for the ESRC Workshop, Grenoble, 2000); European Consortium for Political Research, http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/jointsessions/paperarchive/grenoble/ws8/rees.pdf. The Schengen area refers to the geographical territory of the states agreeing to the Schengen conventions of 1985 and 1995, which were incorporated into EU law by the 1999 Treaty of Amsterdam. The conventions abolish internal border controls between signatories.
58. Jeff Huysmans, The European Union and the Securitization of Migration, Journal of Common Market Studies 38, no. 5 (2000): 756-57.
59. Adamson, Crossing Borders, 178.
60. United Nations, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons.
61. United Nations General Assembly, 55th Session, Official Document, Supplement 49, Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Crime, UN General Assembly Resolution 25, Annex III, A/45/49, 2001.
62. Moisés Naím, Illicit: How Smugglers, Traffickers, and Copycats Are Hijacking the Global Economy (Doubleday, 2005), 89.
63. Adam Graycar, Trafficking in Human Beings (paper presented at the International Conference on Migration, Culture, and Crime, Israel, 1999), 2.
64. Quirk, Trafficked into Slavery, 191.
65. Apap, Cullen, and Medved, Counteracting Human Trafficking, 17-18.
66. White House Office of the Press Secretary, news release, Fact Sheet on Migrant Smuggling and Trafficking, 15 December 2000.
67. See note 2; Karin M. Fierke, Critical Approaches to International Security (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007).
68. Jahic and Finckenauer, Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking, 28.
69. See, for example, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (1981; New York: Kitchen Table Women of Color Press, 1983)
70. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982)
71. Sara Ruddick, Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989)
72. Sandra Harding, ed., The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (New York: Routledge, 2004)
73. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2000). Other feminists such as Joan W. Scott and Chandra Talpade Mohanty have argued that experience is a problematic notion in itself. Uncritical reliance upon experience as the foundation for knowledge runs the risk of reifying difference rather than critically understanding the construction and possibilities of difference. See
74. Joan Wallach Scott, The Evidence of Experience, Critical Inquiry 17, no. 4 (1991)
75. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Feminist Encounters: Locating the Politics of Experience, Copyright 1 (Fall 1987):30-44.
76. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW), Human Rights and Trafficking in Persons: A Handbook (Bangkok: 2000).
77. Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 22.
78. See also Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders:Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998).
79. GAATW, Human Rights and Trafficking in Persons.
80. Janice G. Raymond and Donna M. Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States: International and Domestic Trends (New York: Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 2001).
81. Jo Goodey, Sex Trafficking in Women from Central and East European Countries: Promoting a 'Victim-centred' and 'Woman-centred' Approach to Criminal Justice Intervention, Feminist Review 2006 (2004): 26-45
82. Jacqueline Berman, (Un)Popular Strangers and Crises (Un)Bounded: Discourses of Sex Trafficking, the European Political Community and the Panicked State of the Modern State, European Journal of International Relations 9, no. 1 (2003): 37-86.
83. Europol, Legislation on Trafficking in Human Beings and Illegal Immigrant Smuggling, Europol Public Information, http://www.europol.eu.int/publications/Other/Reports%202005/Legislation%20on%20THB%20and%20IIS%20Public.pdf.
84. Anthony DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 40.
85. Peter Landesman, The Girls Next Door, The New York Times, 25 January 2004.
86. United Nations, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons.
87. Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol, 3.
88. United States Department of Justice, Department of Justice Issues T Visa to Protect Women, Children and All Victims of Human Trafficking, news release, 24 January 2002.
89. Europol, Legislation on Trafficking in Human Beings and Illegal Immigrant Smuggling.
90. Phyllis Coontz and Catherine Griebel, International Approaches to Human Trafficking: The Call for a Gender-Sensitive Perspective in International Law, Women's Health Journal 4 (2004): 47-58. See also Goodey, Sex Trafficking in Women from Central and East European Countries.
91. Coontz and Griebel, International Approaches to Human Trafficking, 57.
92. Wendy Chapkis, Trafficking, Migration, and the Law: Protecting Innocents, Punishing Immigrants, Gender & Society 17, no. 6 (2003): 932.
93. Jayashri Srikantiah, Perfect Victims and Real Survivors: The Iconic Victim in Domestic Human Trafficking Law, Boston University Law Review 87 (2007): 159.
94. Nandita Sharma, Anti-Trafficking Rhetoric and the Making of a Global Apartheid, NWSA Journal 17, no. 3 (2005): 91
95. Bruggeman, Illegal Immigration and Trafficking, 3
96. Quirk, Trafficked into Slavery, 197
97. Ann D. Jordan, Trafficking and Globalization, Center for American Progress, http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2004/10/b222852.html.
98. Berman, (Un)Popular Strangers and Crises (Un)Bounded, 37.
99. See also Wendy Chapkis, Live Sex Acts: Women Performing Erotic Labor (New York: Routledge, 1997), 94.
100. Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol, 4.
101. United States Department of State, Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000: Trafficking in Persons Report, http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2004/.
102. William Finnegan, The Countertraffickers: Rescuing the Victims of the Global Sex Trade, The New Yorker, 5 May 2008.
103. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking, 26.
104. Jo Doezema, Now You See Her, Now You Don't: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiation, Social & Legal Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 67.
105. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery.
106. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery, 7.
107. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery, 41.
108. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery, 11.
109. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery, 9.
110. See Kathleen Barry, Charlotte Bunch, and Shirley Castley, eds., International Feminism: Networking against Female Sexual Slavery; Report of the Global Feminist Workshop to Organize against Traffic in Women (Rotterdam: International Women's Tribune Center, 1983)
111. Raymond and Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States
112. Sheila Jeffreys, Trafficking in Women Versus Prostitution: A False Distinction (paper presented at the Townsville International Women's Conference, Townsville, Australia, 2002)
113. Julie Bindel, False Distinctions between Pornography, Prostitution, and Trafficking, in Trafficking and Women's Rights, ed. Christien L. van der Anker and Jeroen Doomernik (Houndsmills, Basingstroke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
114. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking, 108-11.
115. Gozdziak and Collett, Research on Human Trafficking in North America, 117.
116. Kelly, 'You Can Find Anything You Want.'
117. H. Richard Friman and Simon Reich, Human Trafficking and the Balkans, in Human Trafficking, Human Security, and the Balkans.
118. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking, 17. Barry herself warned against sensationalism in the service of advocacy. She connects the representations of trafficked women today to the anti-trafficking activists of the late nineteenth century who used lurid stories to publicize the issue. She writes that the net result of their paternalistic, highly dramatized concern was to characterize the victims as such poor, sweet young things as to make the stories about them unbelievable. The very effort to dramatize and create attention casts suspicion on the veracity of the stories. Barry, Female Sexual Slavery, 11.
119. Christine B. N. Chin, In Service and Servitude: Foreign Female Domestic Workers and the Malaysian 'Modernity' Project (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
120. Sharon Bell notes, Prostitutes' rights groups do not claim that prostitution is a free choice; they claim that it is as free a choice as other choices make in a capitalist, patriarchal, and racist system. Shannon Bell, Reading, Writing, and Rewriting the Prostitute Body (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994), 111.
121. Jo Bindman, An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry, in Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition, ed. Kamala Kempadoo and Jo Doezema (New York: Routledge, 1998),67.
122. See Carol Vance, ed., Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality (New York: Pandora Press, 1989)
123. Jill Nagle, ed., Whores and Other Feminists (New York: Routledge, 1997)
124. Chapkis, Live Sex Acts. Prominent sex worker unions and advocacy groups include COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) in the United States, the Scarlet Alliance in Australia, the Red Thread in the Netherlands, Hydra and Hookers United (HGW) in Germany, the Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee in India, the Association of Women Prostitutes of Argentina (ANMAR), the Democratic Coalition of Sex Workers in Korea, the International Committee for the Rights of Sex Workers in Europe, the Asia Pacific Network of Sex Workers, the Network of Sex Work Projects, the International Union of Sex Workers, the International Committee for Prostitutes' Rights, and The International Prostitutes' Collective, to name but a few.
125. See Gregor Gall, Sex Worker Union Organizing: An International Study (Houndsmills, Basingstroke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
126. Priscilla Alexander, Feminism, Sex Workers, and Human Rights, in Whores and Other Feminists, ed. Jill Nagle (New York: Routledge, 1997).
127. Bindman, An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry, 65.
128. See also Jo Doezema, Forced to Choose: Beyond the Voluntary V. Forced Prostitution Dichotomy, in Global Sex Workers, 42.
129. Alison Murray, Debt Bondage and Trafficking: Don't Believe the Hype, in Global Sex Workers, 98.
130. Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee, Anti-Trafficking Website of Durbar - Our Mission, http://antitrafficking-durbar.org/ourmission.html. See also Finnegan, The Countertraffickers.
131. Laura María Agustín, Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labor Markets, and the Rescue Industry (London: Zed Books, 2007).
132. GAO, Human Trafficking, 15.
133. Julia O'Connell Davidson and Bridget Anderson, The Trouble with 'Trafficking', in Trafficking and Women's Rights, 21.
134. Melissa Ditmore and Marjan Wijers, The Negotiations on the UN Protocol on Trafficking in Persons, Nemesis 4 (2003): 82.
135. Julie Mertus and Andrea Bertone, Combating Trafficking: International Efforts and Their Ramifications, in Human Trafficking, Human Security, and the Balkans, 51.
136. Bindman, An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry, 70.
137. Ditmore and Wijers, The Negotiations on the UN Protocol on Trafficking in Persons, 82-83.
138. Berman, (Un)Popular Strangers and Crises (Un)Bounded
139. Jahic and Finckenauer, Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking.
140. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Trafficking in Persons: The New Protocol, (2000), http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/trafficking_protocol_background.html.
141. Landesman, The Girls Next Door. For a critical view of Landesman, and his response, see Jack Shafer et al., Assessing Landesman, Slate, http://www.slate.com/id/2094646/fr/nyt/
142. Demleitner, The Law at a Crossroads, 264. The most common recruitment strategies focus not on kidnapping or abduction but on deceptive job advertisements and promises of employment.
143. See Louise Shelley, Human Trafficking as a form of Transnational Crime, in Human Trafficking, ed. Maggy Lee (Devon, UK: Willan Publishing, 2007), 116-37
144. Ilse van Liempt, Trafficking in Human Beings: Conceptual Dilemmas, in Trafficking and Women's Rights; Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery, 142-43.
145. Demleitner, The Law at a Crossroads, 264.
146. Chapkis, Trafficking, Migration, and the Law, 930
147. Quirk, Trafficked into Slavery, 298-99.
148. Bruggeman, Illegal Immigration and Trafficking, 5.
149. Bindman, An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry, 77.
150. Claudia Aradau, The Perverse Politics of Four-Letter Words: Risk and Pity in the Securitization of Human Trafficking, Millennium Journal of International Studies 33, no. 2 (2004): 262.
151. Demleitner, The Law at a Crossroads, 273.
152. See also Tyldum and Brunovkis, Describing the Unobserved.
153. Scully, Pre-Cold War Traffic in Sexual Labor and Its Foes, 86.
154. Chapkis, Live Sex Acts, 42.
155. See also Jo Doezema, Loose Women or Lost Women? The ReEmergence of the Myth of 'White Slavery' in Contemporary Discourses of 'Trafficking in Women,' Gender Issues 18, no. 1 (2000): 23-50.
156. See Jacqueline Berman, The Left, the Right, and the Prostitute: The Making of U.S. Antitrafficking in Persons Policy, Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 14 (2005-06): 278.
157. Jahic and Finckenauer, Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking, 26 See, for example, Hughes, who writes, As a result of trafficking, Russian women are in prostitution in over 50 countries. In some parts of the world, such as Israel and Turkey, women from Russia and other republics of the former Soviet Union are so prevalent, that prostitutes are called 'Natashas' Hughes, The 'Natasha' Trade: The Transnational Shadow Market of Trafficking in Women, 629. See also
158. Donna M. Hughes, The 'Natasha' Trade: Transnational Sex Trafficking, National Institute of Justice Journal, no. 246 (2001)
159. Victor Malarek, The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2004).
160. Jahic and Finckenauer, Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking, 26.
161. Doezema, Loose Women or Lost Women, 37-38.
162. Tickner, Gendering World Politics, 62.