Adipose tissue engineering: State of the art, recent advances and innovative approaches

Expert Review of Medical Devices

Volumn 6, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 533-551

  Tanzi, Maria Cristina ^a   Farè, Silvia ^a  

^a POLITECNICO DI MILANO   (Italy)

Author keywords

Adipogenesis; Adipose derived stem cells; Brown adipose tissue; Preadipocytes; Vascularization; Volume retention; White adipose tissue

Indexed keywords

BASIC FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; INSULIN; MATRIGEL; MICROSPHERE; POLYGLACTIN; SOMATOMEDIN C;

ADIPOGENESIS; ADIPOSE TISSUE; AUTOTRANSPLANTATION; BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE; CELL DEATH; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL ENCAPSULATION; CELL SELECTION; CELL TRANSPLANTATION; CELL TYPE; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; HUMAN; MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL; NEOVASCULARIZATION (PATHOLOGY); NONHUMAN; PROADIPOCYTE; REVIEW; TISSUE ENGINEERING; TISSUE REGENERATION; VASCULARIZATION; WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE;

ADIPOCYTES; ADIPOSE TISSUE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; STEM CELLS; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

EID: 70449379048     PISSN: 17434440     EISSN: 17452422     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/erd.09.37     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Gomillion CT, Burg KJL. Review - stem cells and adipose tissue engineering. Biomaterials 27, 6052-6063 (2006). •• Adipose tissue engineering strategies up to 2005, focusing on stem cells.
2. Cannon B, Nedergaard J. Brown adipose tissue: function and physiological significance. Physiol. Rev. 84, 277-359 (2004). (Pubitemid 38054374)
3. Wheater PR, Heath JW, Young B. Wheater's Functional Histology (3rd Edition.) Churchill Livingstone, NY, USA 61-75 (1993).
4. Frühbeck G. Overview of adipose tissue and its role in obesity and metabolic disorders. Methods Mol. Biol. 456, 1-22 (2008).
5. Rhodes NP. Inflammatory signals in the development of tissue-engineered soft tissue. Biomaterials 28(34), 5131-5136 (2007).
6. Gesta S, Tseng YH, Kahn CR. Developmental origin of fat: tracking obesity to its source. Cell 131, 242-256 (2007). (Pubitemid 47576146)
7. Tseng YH, Kokkotou E, Schulz TJ et al. New role of bone morphogenetic protein 7 in brown adipogenesis and energy expenditure. Nat. Lett. 454, 1000-1004 (2008).
8. Crandall DL, Hausman GJ, Kral JG. A review of the microcirculation of adipose tissue: anatomic, metabolic, and angiogenic perspectives. Microcirculation 4, 211-232 (1997).
9. Bunnel BA, Flaat M, Gagliardi C, Patel B, Ripoll C. Adipose-derived stem cells: isolation, expansion and differentiation. Methods 45, 115-120 (2008). • Methods for isolation, expansion and differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells. (Pubitemid 351885360)
10. Patrick CW Jr. Breast tissue engineering. Ann. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 6, 109-130 (2004). • Breast restoration strategies with important definitions.
11. Patrick CW Jr. Adipose tissue engineering: the future of breast and soft tissue reconstruction following tumor resection. Semin. Surg. Oncol. 19, 302-311 (2000).
12. Ashjian PH, De Ugarte DA, Katz AJ, Hedrick MH. Lipoplasty: from body contouring to tissue engineering. Aesthetic. Surg. J. 22, 121-127 (2002).
13. Langstein HN, Robb GL. Reconstructive approaches in soft tissue sarcoma. Semin. Surg. Oncol. 17(1), 52-65 (1999).
14. Alhadlaq A, Tang M, Mao JJ. Engineered adipose tissue from human mesenchymal stem cells maintains predefined shape and dimension: implications in soft tissue augmentation and reconstruction. Tissue Eng. 11(3-4), 556-566 (2005). (Pubitemid 40632571)
15. Mojallal A, Foyatier JL. Historical review of the use of adipose tissue transfer in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Chir. Plast. Ethétique 49, 419-425 (2004).
16. Coleman SR. Facial recontouring with lipostructure. Clin. Plast. Surg. 24, 347-367 (1997).
17. Borges J, Mueller MC, Padron NT, Tegtmeier F, Lang EM, Stark GB. Engineered adipose tissue supplied by functional microvessel. Tissue Eng. 9(6), 1263-1270 (2003). (Pubitemid 37467674)
18. Masuda T, Furue M, Matsuda T. Novel strategy for soft tissue augmentation based on transplantation of fragmented omentum and preadipocytes. Tissue Eng. 10(11-12), 1672-1683 (2004). (Pubitemid 40054209)
19. Stillaert F, Findlay M, Palmer J et al. Host rather than graft origin of Matrigel-induced adipose tissue in the murine tissue-engineering chamber. Tissue Eng. 13(9), 2291-2300 (2007). (Pubitemid 47404444)
20. Patrick CW Jr. Adipose tissue engineering: the future of breast and soft tissue reconstruction following tumor resection. Semin. Surg. Oncol. 19, 302-311 (2000).
21. Patrick CW Jr. Tissue engineering strategies for adipose tissue repair. Anat. Rec. 263, 361-366 (2001).
22. Ahmed TAE, Dare EV, Hincke M. Fibrin: a versatile scaffold for tissue engineering applications. Tissue Eng. B Rev. 14(2), 199-215 (2008). (Pubitemid 351839214)
23. Masuda T, Furue M, Matsuda T. Photocured, styrenated gelatin-based microspheres for de novo adipogenesis through co-release of basic fibroblast growth factor, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor I. Tissue Eng. 10(3-4), 523-535 (2004). (Pubitemid 38580273)
24. Rhodes NP, Di Bartolo C, Hunt JA. Analysis of the cellular infiltration of benzyl-esterified hyaluronan sponges implanted in rats. Biomacromolecules 8, 2733-2738 (2007). (Pubitemid 47516923)
25. Hofer SOP, Knight KM, Cooper-White JJ et al. Increasing the volume of vascularized tissue formation in engineered constructs: an experimental study in rats. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 111, 1186-1192 (2003).
26. Flynn LE, Prestwich GD, Semple JL, Woodhouse KA. Proliferation and differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells on naturally derived scaffolds. Biomaterials 12, 1862-1871 (2008).
27. Fischbach C, Seufert J, Staiger H. Three-dimensional in vitro model of adipogenesis: comparison of culture conditions. Tissue Eng. 10(1-2), 215-229 (2004). (Pubitemid 38199377)
28. Fischbach C, Sprub T, Weiser B et al. Generation of mature fat pads in vitro and in vivo utilizing 3-D long-term culture of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes Exp. Cell. Res. 300(1), 54-64 (2004). (Pubitemid 39286217)
29. Caplan AI. Adult mesenchymal stem cells for tissue engineering versus regenerative medicine. J. Cell. Physiol. 213, 341-347 (2007).
30. Gregoire FM. Adipocyte differentiation: from fibroblast to endocrine cell. Exp. Biol. Med. 226(11), 997-1002 (2001).
31. Hemmrich K, von Heimburg D, Cierpka K, Haydarlioglu S, PalluaN. Optimization of the differentiation of human preadipocytes in vitro. Differentiation 73, 28-35 (2005). (Pubitemid 41583386)
32. Zuk PA, Zhu M, Ashjian P et al. Human adipose tissue is a source of multipotent stem cells. Mol. Biol. Cell 13, 4279-4295 (2002). (Pubitemid 35471185)
33. Zuk PA, Zhu M, Mizuno H et al. Multilineage cells from human adipose tissue: implications for cell-based therapies. Tissue Eng. 7, 211-228 (2001) (Pubitemid 32295155)
34. Strem BM, Hedrick MH, The growing importance of fat in regenerative medicine. Trends Biotechnol. 23(2), 64-66 (2005).
35. Zhu Y, Liu T, Song K, Fan X, Ma X, Cui Z. Adipose-derived stem cell: a better stem cell than BMSC. Cell. Biochem. Funct. 26(6), 664-675 (2008).
36. Hong L, Peptan I, Clark P, Mao JJ. Ex vivo adipose tissue engineering by human marrow stromal cell seeded gelatin sponge. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 33(4), 511-517 (2005).
37. Vallée M, Côté JF, Fradette J. Adiposetissue engineering: taking advantage of the properties of human adipose-derived stem/ stromal cells. Pathologie Biologie 57(4), 309-317 (2008). • The creation of unique tissue-engineered adipose tissues, devoid of exogenous biomaterials, produced from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells.
38. Dubois SG, Floyd EZ, Zvonic S et al. Isolation of human adipose-derived stem cells from biopsies and liposuction. Methods Mol. Biol. 449, 69-79 (2008).
39. Kang SW, Seo SW, Choi CY, Kim BS. Porous poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microsphere as cell substrate and cell transplantation vehicle for adipose tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. C 14(1), 25-34 (2008). • An innovative ex vivo cell expansion process to obtain a large number of transplantable cells avoiding the use of trypsin.
40. Rodriguez AM, Elabd C, Delteil F et al. Adipocyte differentiation of multipotent cells established from human adipose tissue. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 315, 255-263 (2004) (Pubitemid 38183102)
41. Kang X, Xie Y, Kniss DA. Adipose tissue model using three-dimensional cultivation of preadipocytes seeded onto fibrous polymer scaffolds. Tissue Eng. 11(3-4), 458-468 (2005). (Pubitemid 40632561)
42. Toriyama K, Kawaguchi N, Kitoh J et al. Endogenous adipocyte precursor cells for regenerative soft-tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 8(1), 157-165 (2002). (Pubitemid 34194673)
43. Tabata Y, Miyao M, Inamoto T. De novo formation of adipose tissue by controlled release of basic fibroblast growth factor. Tissue Eng. 6(3), 279-289 (2000). (Pubitemid 30419210)
44. Kimura Y, Ozeki M, Inamoto T, Tabata Y. Time course of de novo adipogenesis in matrigel by gelatin microspheres incorporating basic fibroblast growth factor. Tissue Eng. 8(4), 603-613 (2002). (Pubitemid 34857797)
45. Hiraoka Y, Yamashiro H, Yasuda K, Kimura Y, Inamoto T, Tabata Y. In situ regeneration of adipose tissue in rat fat pad by combining a collagen scaffold with gelatin microspheres containing basic fibroblast growth factor. Tissue Eng. 12(6), 1475-1487 (2006). (Pubitemid 44174783)
46. Kimura Y, Ozeki M, Inamoto T, Tabata Y. Adipose tissue engineering based on human preadipocytes combined with gelatin microspheres containing basic fibroblast growth factor. Biomaterials 14, 2513-2521 (2003). (Pubitemid 36407668)
47. Cho SW, Kim I, Kim SH, Rhie JW, Choi CY, Kim BS. Enhancement of adipose tissue formation by implantation of adipogenic-differentiated preadipocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 345, 588-594 (2006). (Pubitemid 43776991)
48. Marra KG, Defail AJ, Clavijo-Alvarez JA et al. FGF-2 enhances vascularization for adipose tissue engineering. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 121(4), 1153-1164 (2008).
49. Yuksel E, Weinfeld AB, Cleek R et al. Increased free fat-graft survival with the long-term, local delivery of insulin, insulin-like growth factor-I, and basic fibroblast growth factor by PLGA/PEG microspheres. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 105, 1712-1720 (2000). (Pubitemid 30191276)
50. Yuksel E, Weinfeld AB, Cleek R. De novo adipose tissue generation through long-term, local delivery of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 by PLGA/PEG microspheres in an in vivo rat model: a novel concept and capability. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 105, 1721-1729 (2000). (Pubitemid 30191277)
51. Flynn LE, Prestwich GD, Semple JL, Woodhouse KA. Adipose tissue engineering with naturally derived scaffolds and adipose-derived stem cells. Biomaterials 28, 3834-3842 (2007). •• Represents an important step for adipose tissue engineering, by helping to elucidate the conditions that support adiposederived stem cell proliferation and adipogenic differentiation.
52. Wechselberger G, Russell RC, Neumeister MW, Schoeller T, Piza-Katzer H, Rainer C. Successful transplantation of three tissue-engineered cell types using capsule induction technique and fibrin glue as a delivery vehicle. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 110, 123-128 (2002).
53. Cho SW, Kim SS, Rhie JW, Cho HM, Choi CY, Kim BS. Engineering of volume-stable adipose tissues. Biomaterials 26, 3577-3585 (2005).
54. Cronin KJ, Messina A, Thompson EW, Morrison WA, Stevens GW, Knight KR. The role of biological extracellular matrix scaffolds in vascularized three-dimensional tissue growth in vivo. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. B82, 122-128 (2007). (Pubitemid 47015361)
55. Torio-Padron N, Baerlecken N, Momeni A, Bjoern Stark G, Borges J. Engineering of adipose tissue by injection of human preadipocytes in fibrin. Aesth. Plast. Surg. 31, 285-293 (2007). (Pubitemid 46709776)
56. Halberstadt C, Austin C, Rowley J. A hydrogel material for plastic and reconstructive applications injected into the subcutaneous space of a sheep. Tissue Eng. 8(2), 309-321 (2002). (Pubitemid 34477797)
57. Marler JJ, Guha A, Rowley J. Soft-tissue augmentation with injectable alginate and syngeneic fibroblasts. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 105, 2049-2058 (2000). (Pubitemid 30244009)
58. Choi YS, Park SN, Suh H. Adipose tissue engineering using mesenchymal stem cells attached to injectable PLGA spheres. Biomaterials 26, 5855-5863 (2005). (Pubitemid 40798276)
59. Choi YS, Park SN, Suh H. The effect of PLGA sphere diameter on rabbit mesenchymal stem cells in adipose tissue engineering. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 5, 2165-2171 (2008).
60. Altman AM, Matthias N, Yan Y et al. Dermal matrix as a carrier for in vivo delivery of human adipose-derived stem cells. Biomaterials 29, 1431-1442 (2008).
61. Vermette M, Trottier V, Menard V, Saint-Pierre L, Roy A, Fradette J. Production of a new tissue-engineered adipose substitute from human adipose-derived stromal cells. Biomaterials 28, 2850-2860 (2007). (Pubitemid 46482667)
62. O'Connor K, Song H, Rosenzweig N, Jansen DA. Extracellular matrix substrata alter adipocyte yield and lipogenesis in primary cultures of stromal-vascular cells from human adipose. Biotechnol. Lett. 25, 1967-1972 (2003).
63. Mauney JR, Volloch V, Kaplan DL. Matrix-mediated retention of adipogenic differentiation potential by human adult bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells during ex vivo expansion. Biomaterials 26(31), 6167-6175 (2005). (Pubitemid 40826985)
64. Chaubey A, Burg KJL. Extracellular matrix components as modulators of adult stem cell differentiation in an adipose system. J. Bioact. Compat. Polym. 23, 20-37 (2008). •• Role of extracellular matrix components in modulating the differentiation of adult mouse bone marrow stem cells to adipocytes. (Pubitemid 350277341)
65. Lin SD, Wang KH, Kao AP. Engineered adipose tissue of predefined shape and dimensions from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Tissue Eng. Part A 14(5), 571-581 (2008).
66. Patel PN, Gobin AS, West LJ, Patrick CW Jr. Rheological and recovery properties of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate hydrogels and human adipose tissue. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 73A, 313-319 (2005).
67. Patel PN, Smith CK, Patrick CW Jr. Poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel system supports preadipocyte viability, adhesion, and proliferation. Tissue Eng. 11(10), 1498-1505 (2005).
68. von Heimburg D, Zachariah S, Heschel I et al. Human preadipocytes seeded on freeze-dried collagen scaffolds investigated in vitro and in vivo. Biomaterials 22, 429-438 (2001). (Pubitemid 32007847)
69. von Heimburg D, Kuberka M, Rendchen R, Hemmrich K, Rau G, Pallua N. Preadipocyte-loaded collagen scaffolds with enlarged pore size for improved soft tissue engineering. Int. J. Artif. Organs 26(12), 1064-1076 (2003). (Pubitemid 38219708)
70. von Heimburg D, Zachariah S, Low A, Pallua N. Influence of different biodegradable carriers on the in vivo behavior of human adipose precursor cells. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 108, 411-420 (2001). (Pubitemid 32706073)
71. Wu X, Black L, Santacana-Laffitte G, Patrick CW. Preparation and assessment of glutaraldehyde-crosslinked collagen-chitosan hydrogels for adipose tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A81, 59-65 (2007). (Pubitemid 46435453)
72. Patrick CW Jr, Chauvin PB, Hobley J, Reece GP. Preadipocyte seeded PLGA scaffolds for adipose tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 5(2), 139-151 (1999). (Pubitemid 29196556)
73. Patrick CW Jr, Zheng B, Johnston C, Reece GP. Long-term implantation of preadipocytes-seeded PLGA scaffolds. Tissue Eng. 8, 283-293 (2002). (Pubitemid 34477795)
74. Morgan SM, Ainsworth BJ, Kanczler JM, Babister JC, Chaudhuri JB, Oreffo ROC. Formation of a human-derived fat tissue layer in PDLLGA hollow fibre scaffolds for adipocyte tissue engineering. Biomaterials 30, 1910-1917 (2009).
75. Weiser B, Prantl L, Schubert TE et al. In vivo development and long-term survival of engineered adipose tissue depend on in vitro precultivation strategy. Tissue Eng. A 14(2), 275-284 (2008). (Pubitemid 351272549)
76. Chaubey A, Ross KJ, Leadbetter RM, Burg KJ. Surface patterning: tool to modulate stem cell differentiation in an adipose system. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 84, 70-78 (2008).
77. Kang X, Xie Y, Powell HM et al. Adipogenesis of murine embryonic stem cells in a three-dimensional culture system using electrospun polymer scaffolds. Biomaterials 28, 450-458 (2007). (Pubitemid 44604500)
78. Neubauer M, Hacker M, Bauer-Kreisel P et al. Adipose tissue engineering based on mesenchymal stem cells and basic fibroblast growth factor in vitro. Tissue Eng. 11, 1840-1851 (2005).
79. Mauney JR, Nguyen T, Gillen K, Kirker-Head C, Gimble JM, Kaplan DL. Engineering adipose-like tissue in vitro and in vivo utilizing human bone marrow and adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells with silk fibroin 3D scaffolds. Biomaterials 28, 5280-5290 (2007). (Pubitemid 47532187)
80. Eiselt P, Kim BS, Chacko B et al. Development of technologies aiding large-tissue engineering. Biotechnol. Prog. 14, 134-140 (1998). (Pubitemid 28118274)
81. Lamme EN, Druecke D, Pieper J et al. Long-term evaluation of porous PEGT/ PBT implants for soft tissue augmentation. J. Biomater. Appl. 22, 309-335 (2008). (Pubitemid 350284165)
82. Vashi AV, Keramidaris E, Abberton KM et al. Adipose differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells using Pluronic F-127 hydrogel in vitro. Biomaterials 29, 573-579 (2008). (Pubitemid 350103803)
83. Frye CA, Patrick CW Jr. Threedimensional adipose tissue model using low shear bioreactors. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Animal 42, 109-114 (2006).
84. Fozdar DY, Wu X, Patrick CW Jr, Chen S. Micro-well texture printed into PEG hydrogels using the FILM nanomanufacturing process affects the behavior of preadipocytes. Biomed. Microdevices 10, 839-849 (2008).
85. Kang JH, Gimble JM, Kaplan DL. In vitro 3D model for human vascularized adipose tissue. Tissue Eng. A 15, 1-10 (2009).
86. Borzacchiello A, Mayol L, Ramires PA. Structural and rheological characterization of hyaluronic acid-based scaffolds for adipose tissue engineering. Biomaterials 28, 4399-4408 (2007). (Pubitemid 47212408)
87. Halbleib M, Skurk T, de Luca C, von Heimburg D, Hauner H. Tissue engineering of white adipose tissue using hyaluronic acid-based scaffolds. I: in vitro differentiation of human adipocyte precursor cells on scaffolds. Biomaterials 24, 3125-3132 (2003). (Pubitemid 36944943)
88. Hemmrich K, von Heimburg D, Rendchen R, Di Bartolo C, Milella E, Pallua N. Implantation of preadipocyteloaded hyaluronic acid-based scaffolds into nude mice to evaluate potential for soft tissue engineering. Biomaterials 26, 7025-7037 (2005). (Pubitemid 41095525)
89. Hemmrich K, Van de Sijpe K, Rhodes NP. Autologous in vivo adipose tissue engineering in hyaluronan-based gels - a pilot study. J. Surg. Res. 144, 82-88 (2008). (Pubitemid 350234949)
90. Stillaert FB, Di Bartolo C, Hunt JA et al. Human clinical experience with adipose precursor cells seeded on hyaluronic acid-based spongy scaffolds. Biomaterials 29, 3953-3959 (2008).
91. Rupnik MA, Panigrahy D, Zhang CY et al. Adipose tissue mass can be regulated through the vasculature. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci USA 99, 10730-10735 (2002). (Pubitemid 34907045)
92. Stosich MS, Bastian B, Marion NW, Clark PA, Reilly G, Mao JJ. Vascularized adipose tissue grafts from human mesenchymal stem cells with bioactive cues and microchannel conduits. Tissue Eng. 13, 2881-2890 (2007). (Pubitemid 350233081)
93. Mian R, Morrison WA, Hurley JV et al. Formation of new tissue from an arteriovenous loop in the absence of added extracellular matrix. Tissue Eng. 6, 595-603 (2000). (Pubitemid 30953792)
94. Neels JG, Thinnes T, Loskutoff DJ. Angiogenesis in an in vivo model of adipose tissue development. FASEB J. 18, 983-985 (2004). (Pubitemid 39561499)
95. Tanaka Y, Tsutsumi A, Crowe DM, Tajima S, Morrison WA. Generation of an autologous tissue (matrix) flap by combining an arteriovenous shunt loop with artificial skin in rats: preliminary report. Br. J. Plast. Surg. 53, 51-57 (2000). (Pubitemid 30064324)
96. Walton RL, Beahm EK, Wu L. De novo adipose formation in a vascularized engineered construct. Microsurgery 24, 378-384 (2004). (Pubitemid 39313881)
97. Uriel S, Huang JJ, Moya ML et al. The role of adipose protein derived hydrogels in adipogenesis. Biomaterials 29, 3712-3719 (2008). •• Investigation into the potential of adipose-derived matrices (basement membrane proteins) to induce adipogenesis in vitro and in vivo.
98. Cronin KJ, Messina A, Knight KR et al. New murine model of spontaneous autologous tissue engineering, combining an arteriovenous pedicle with matrix materials. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 113, 260-269 (2004). (Pubitemid 39202038)
99. Rophael JA, Craft RO, Palmer JA et al. Angiogenic growth factor synergism in a murine tissue engineering model of angiogenesis and adipogenesis. Am. J. Pathol. 171, 2048-2057 (2007).
100. Kelly JL, Findlay MW, Knight KR et al. Contact with existing adipose tissue is inductive for adipogenesis in matrigel. Tissue Eng. 12(7), 2041-2047 (2006).
101. Vashi AV, Abberton KM, Thomas GP et al. Adipose tissue engineering based on the controlled release of fibroblast growth factor-2 in a collagen matrix. Tissue Eng. 12, 3035-3043 (2006).
102. Patrick CW Jr, Uthamanthil R, Beahm E, Frye C. Animal models for adipose tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. B 14, 167-178 (2008). •• Comprehensive update on the animal models studied so far. (Pubitemid 351839213)
103. Nedergaard J, Bengtsson T, Cannon B. Unexpected evidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humans. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 293, E444-E452 (2007). (Pubitemid 47205086)
104. Seale P, Bjork B, Yang W et al. PRDM16 controls a brown fat/skeletal muscle switch. Nature 454, 961-967 (2008).
105. Cesari F. Research highlight. Development: brown fat: muscle undercover? Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9, 742-743 (2008).
106. Peer LA. Loss of weight and volume in human fat graft, with postulation of a cell survival theory. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 5, 217 (1950).
107. Cannon B, Nedergaard J. Neither fat nor flesh. Nature 454, 947-948 (2008).
108. American Society of Plastic Surgeons www.plasticsurgery.org
109. Tribeca Plastic Surgery www.lipostructure.com