A review of perceptual distinctiveness in landraces including an analysis of how its roles have been overlooked in plant breeding for low-input farming systems

Economic Botany

Volumn 63, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 242-255

  Gibson, Richard W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Agromorphological trait; Climate change; Diversity; In situ; Subsistence farmer; Traditional variety; Varietal improvement

Indexed keywords

EID: 70350726789     PISSN: 00130001     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12231-009-9086-3     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Almekinders, C. J. M. and A. Elings. 2001. Collaboration of Farmers and Breeders: Participatory Crop Improvement in Perspective. Euphytica 122:425-438.
2. Anonymous. 2005. Africa's Seed Laws: Red Carpet for the Corporations. Seedling July:28-35.
3. Anonymous. 2007. Ethnobotany, the Science of Survival: A Declaration from Kaua'i. Economic Botany 611:1-2.
4. Arias, L., J. Chavez, V. Cob, L. Burgos, and J. Canal. 1999. V. Agromorphological Characters and Farmer Perceptions: Data Collection and Analysis. Mexico. In D. Jarvis, B. Sthapit, and L. Sears, eds., Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity in Situ: A Scientific Basis for Sustainable Agriculture. IPGRI, Rome.
5. Ayana, A. and E. Bekele. 1998. Geographical Patterns of Morphological Variation in Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) Germplasm from Ethiopia and Eritrea: Qualitative Characters. Hereditas 129:195-205.
6. Baidu-Forson, J. 1997. On-station farmer participatory varietal evaluation: a strategy for client-oriented breeding. Experimental Agriculture 33:43-50.
7. Bellon, M. R. 1997. Understanding Farmer Seed and Variety Systems. On-farm Conservation as a Process: An Analysis of Its Components. In L. Sperling and M. Loevinsohn, eds., Using Diversity Enhancing and Maintaining Genetic Resources On-farm. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-9290-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html (IDRC Canada).
8. Bellon, M. R., and S. B. Brush. 1994. Keepers of the Maize in Chiapas, Mexico. Economic Botany 48:193-209.
9. Benz, B., H. Perales, and S. B. Brush. 2007. Tzeltal and Tzotzil Farmer Knowledge and Maize Diversity in Chiapas, Mexico. Current Anthropology 48:289-300.
10. Berlin, B. 1976. The Concept of Rank in Ethnobiological Classification: Some Evidence from Aguara Folk Botany. American Ethnologist 3:381-399.
11. Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobiological Classification: Principles of Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional Societies. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
12. Bernaud, A., M. Deu, E. Garine, D. McKey, and H. Joy. 2006. Local Genetic Diversity of Sorghum in a Village in Northern Cameroon: Structure and Dynamics of Landraces. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 114:237-48.
13. Boko, M., I. Niang, A. Nyong, C. Vogel, A. Githeko, M. Medany, B. Osman-Elasha, R. Tabo, and P. Yanda. 2007. Africa. Pages 433-457 in M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, eds., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
14. Boster, J. S. 1984. Classification, Cultivation, and Selection of Aguaruna Cultivars of Manihot Esculenta (Euphorbiaceae). Advances in Economic Botany 1:34-47.
15. Boster, J. S. 1985. Selection for Perceptual Distinctiveness: Evidence from Aguaruna Cultivars of Manihot Esculenta. Economic Botany 39:310-325.
16. Boster, J. S. 1986. Exchange of Varieties and Information between Aguarana Manioc Cultivators. American Anthropologist 88:428-436.
17. Briand, L., A. E. Brown, J. M. Lenné, and D. M. Teverson. 1998. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Variation within and among Bean Landrace Mixtures (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Tanzania. Euphytica 102:371-377.
18. Brush, S. B. 1992. Ethnoecology, Biodiversity, and Modernization in Andean Potato Agriculture. Journal of Ethnobiology 12:161-185.
19. Brush, S. B., H. J. Carney, and Z. Huaman. 1981. Dynamics of Andean Potato Agriculture. Economic Botany 35:70-88.
20. Bulmer, R. 1967. Why Is the Cassowary not a Bird? A Problem of Zoological Taxonomy among the Karam of the New Guinea Highlands. Man 2:5-25.
21. Cabrera, I. R., E. Z. Martelo, and V. V. Garcia. 2001. Gender, Rural Households, and Biodiversity in Native Mexico. Agriculture and Human Values 18:85-93.
22. Ceccarelli, S. 1994. Specific Adaptation and Breeding for Marginal Conditions. Euphytica 77:205-219.
23. Ceccarelli, S., and S. Grando. 1991. Barley Landraces from the Fertile Crescent: A Lesson for Plant Breeders. Pages 51-76 (Chapter 3) in S. B. Brush, ed., Genes in the Field. On-farm Conservation of Crop Diversity. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.
24. Ceccarelli, S., S. Grando, E. Bailey, A. Amri, M. El-Felah, F. Nassif, S. Rezgui, and A. Yahyaoui. 2001. Farmer Participation in Barley Breeding in Syria, Morocco and Tunisia. Euphytica 122:521-536.
25. Choudhary, M. K., E. Weltzien, and M. M. Sharma. 1997. Evaluating Pearl Millet Varieties with Farmers in Barmer District. In L. Sperling and M. Loevinsohn, Using Diversity Enhancing and Maintaining Genetic Resources On-farm. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-9290-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html (IDRC Canada).
26. CIMMYT. 2000. Focus Group Interviews with Farm Households on Their Views about Crop Improvement. http://www.cimmyt.org/Research/economics/oaxaca/overview/ov_fg.views.htm (9 September 2007).
27. Clawson, D. L. 1985. Harvest Security and Intraspecific Diversity in Traditional Tropical Agriculture. Economic Botany 39:56-67.
28. Cleveland, D. A. and D. Soleri. 2007. Extending Darwin's Analogy: Bridging Differences in Concepts of Selection between Farmers, Biologists and Plant Breeders. Economic Botany 61:121-136.
29. Cleveland, D. A., D. Soleri, and S. E. Smith. 2000. A Biological Framework for Understanding Farmers' Plant Breeding. Economic Botany 54:377-394.
30. Coe, E. H. 2001. The Origins of Maize Genetics. Nature Reviews Genetics 2:898-905.
31. Darwin, C. 1859. The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. First Collier Books Edition 1962; seventh printing 1974. Macmillan, New York.
32. Defoer, T., A. Kamara, and H. de Groote. 1997. Gender and Variety Selection: Farmers' Assessment of Local Maize Varieties in Southern Mali. African Crop Science Journal 5:65-76.
33. Del Pozo-Insfran, D., C. H. Brenes, S. O. S. Saldivar, and T. Talcott. 2006. Polyphenolic and Antioxidant Content of White and Blue Corn (Zea mays L.) Products. Food Research International 39:696-703.
34. De Waal, D., F. R. Chinjinga, L. Johansson, E. F. Kanju, and N. Nathaniels. 1997. Village-Based Cassava Breeding in Tanzania. Pages 83-88 in L. van Veldhuizen, A. Waters-Bayer, R. Ramirez, D. Johnson, and J. Thompson, eds., Farmers' Research in Practice: Lessons from the Field. International Technology Publications, U.K.
35. Dykes, L. and L. W. Rooney. 2006. Sorghum and Millet Phenols and Antioxidants. Journal of Cereal Science 44:236-251.
36. Elias, M., O. Panaud, and T. Robert. 2000. Perception and Management of Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Farming System Using AFLP Markers. Heredity 85:219-30.
37. Elias, M., O. Panaud, and T. Robert., D. McKey, O. Panaud, M. C. Anstett, L. Penet, and T. Robert. 2001a. Traditional Management of Cassava Morphological and Genetic Diversity by the Makushi Amerindians (Guyana, South America): Perspectives for On-farm Conservation of Genetic Resources. Euphytica 120:143-157.
38. Elias, M., O. Panaud, and T. Robert., L. Penet, P. Vindry, D. McKey, O. Panaud, and T. Robert. 2001b. Unmanaged Sexual Reproduction and the Dynamics of Genetic Diversity of a Vegetatively Propagated Crop Plant, Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), in a Traditional Farming System. Molecular Ecology 10:1895-1907.
39. Geleta, N. and M. T. Labuschagme. 2005. Qualitative Traits Variation in Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) Germplasm from Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3055-3064.
40. Gibson, R. W., N. G. Lyimo, A. E. M. Temu, T. E. Stathers, W. W. Page, L. T. H. Nsemwa, G. Acola, and R. I. Lamboll. 2005. Maize Seed Selection by East African Smallholder Farmers and Resistance to Maize Streak Virus. Annals of Applied Biology 147:153-159.
41. Gibson, R. W., N. G. Lyimo, A. E. M. Temu, T. E. Stathers, W. W. Page, L. T. H. Nsemwa, G. Acola, and R. I. Lamboll., E. Byamukama, I. Mpembe, J. Kayongo, and R. O. M. Mwanga. 2008. Working with Farmer Groups in Uganda to Develop New Sweet Potato Cultivars: Decentralisation and Building on Traditional Approaches. Euphytica 159:217-228.
42. Gomez, J. A. A., M. R. Bellon, and M. Smale. 2000. A Regional Analysis of Maize Biological Diversity in Southeastern Guanajuato, Mexico. Economic Botany 54:60-72.
43. Haddi, A. and T. Berg. 2006. Selectors and Non-selectors: Agricultural and Socio-economic Implications of On-farm Seed Selection in Ethiopia. PGR Newsletter 145:1-10.
44. Halsey, M. E., K. M. Remund, C. A. Davis, M. Qualls, P. J. Eppard, and S. A. Berberich. 2005. Isolation of Maize from Pollen-Mediated Gene Flow by Time and Distance. Crop Science 45:2172-2185.
45. Harlan, J. R. 1975. Crops and Man. American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.
46. Hays, T. E. 1979. Plant Classification and Nomenclature in Ndumba, Papua New Guinea Highlands. Ethnology 18:253-270.
47. Hernandez Xolocotzi, E. 1985. Maize and Man in the Great Southwest. Economic Botany 39:416-430.
48. Hosfield, G. L. 2001. Seed Coat Color in Phaseolus vulgaris L.: Its Chemistry and Associated Health Benefits. Annual Report of the Bean Improvement Cooperative 44:1-6.
49. Humphries, S., O. Gallardo, J. Jimenez, and F. Sierra. 2005. Linking Small Farmers to the Formal Research Sector: Lessons from a Participatory Bean Breeding Programme in Honduras. Agricultural Research and Extension Network (AgREN) Paper No. 142.
50. IPGRI. 2001. On Farm Management of Crop Genetic Diversity and the Convention on Biological Diversity's Programme of Work on Agricultural Biodiversity. http://www.unu.edu/env/plec/cbd/Montreal/reports/IPGRI-on-farm.pdf.
51. Iskandar, J. and R. Ellen. 1999. In Situ Conservation of Rice Landraces among the Baduy of West Java. Journal of Ethnobiology 19:97-125.
52. Jarvis, D. I., V. Zoes, D. Nares, and T. Hodgkin. 2006. On-farm Management of Crop Genetic Diversity and the Convention on Biological Diversity Programme of Work on Agricultural Biodiversity. PGR Newsletter Issue 2006, No 138:5-17.
53. Johannessen, C. L., M. R. Wilson, and W. A. Davenport. 1970. The Domestication of Maize: Process or Event? Geographical Review 60:393-413.
54. Johnson, A. W. 1972. Individuality and Experimentation in Traditional Agriculture. Human Ecology 1:149-159.
55. Jones, R. B., P. A. Audi, and R. Tripp. 2001. The Role of Informal Seed Systems in the Dissemination of Modern Varieties. The Example of Pigeonpea from a Semi-arid Area of Kenya. Experimental Agriculture 37:539-548.
56. Joshi, K. D., M. Subedi, R. B. Rana, K. B. Kadayat, and B. R. Sthapit. 1997. Enhancing On-farm Varietal Diversity through Participatory Varietal Selection: A Case Study for Chaite Rice in Nepal. Experimental Agriculture 33:335-344.
57. Koinange, E. M. K., S. P. Singh, and P. Gepts. 1996. Genetic Control of the Domestication Syndrome in Common Bean. Crop Science 36:1037-1045.
58. Kornegay, J., J. A. Beltran, and J. Ashby. 1996. Farmer Selection within Segregating Populations of Common Bean in Columbia. Pages 151-160 in P. Eyzaquirre and M. Iwanaga, eds., Participatory Plant Breeding. Proceedings of a Workshop on Participatory Plant Breeding, 26-29 July 1995, Wageningen, The Netherlands. IPGRI, Rome.
59. Lambert, D. H. 1985. Swamp Rice Farming. The Indigenous Pahang Malay Agricultural System. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
60. Louette, D. 1991. Traditional Management of Seed and Genetic Diversity: What Is a Landrace? Pages 109-142 (Chapter 5) in S. B. Brush, ed., Genes in the Field. On-farm Conservation of Crop Diversity. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
61. Louette, D., and M. Smale. 2000. Farmers' Seed Selection Practices and Traditional Maize Varieties in Cuzalapa, Mexico. Euphytica 113:25-41.
62. Louette, D., A. Charrier, and J. Berthaud. 1997. In Situ Conservation of Maize in Mexico: Genetic Diversity and Maize Seed Management in a Traditional Community. Economic Botany 51:20-38.
63. Manu-Aduening, J. A., R. I. Lamboll, A. A. Dankyi, and R. W. Gibson. 2005. Cassava Diversity and Evolution in Ghanaian Farming Systems. Euphytica 144:331-340.
64. Manu-Aduening, J. A., R. I. Lamboll, G. Ampong Mensah, J. N. Lamptey, E. Moses, A. A. Dankyi, and R. W. Gibson. 2006. Development of Superior Cassava Cultivars in Ghana by Farmers and Scientists: The Process Adopted, Outcomes and Contributions and Changed Roles of Different Stakeholders. Euphytica 150:47-61.
65. Martin, G. B. and M. W. Adams. 1987. Landraces of Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) in Northern Malawi. I. Regional Variation. Economic Botany 41:190-203.
66. McCann, J. 2005. Maize and Grace. Africa's Encounter with a New World Crop, 1500-2000. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
67. McClean, P. E., R. K. Lee, C. Otto, P. Gepts, and M. J. Bassett. 2002. Molecular and Phenotypic Mapping of Genes Controlling Seed Coat Pattern and Color in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Journal of Heredity 93:148-152.
68. Mekbib, F. 1997. Farmer Participation in Common Bean Genotype Evaluation: The Case of Eastern Ethiopia. Experimental Agriculture 33:399-408.
69. Mekbib, F. 1999. Informal Bean Seed Systems. Page 15 in ILEIA Newsletter, December 1999.
70. Mkumbira, J., L. Chiwona-Karltun, U. Lagercrantz, N. M. Mahungu, J. Saka, A. Mhone, M. Bokanga, L. Brimer, U. Gullberg, and H. Rosling. 2003. Classification of Cassava into 'Bitter' and 'Cool' in Malawi: From Farmers' Perceptions to Characterisation by Molecular Markers. Euphytica 132:7-22.
71. Nazarea, V. D. 1998. Cultural Memory and Biodiversity. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
72. Nazarea, V. D. 2005. Heirloom Seeds and Their Helpers. Marginality and Memory in the Conservation of Biological Diversity. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
73. Nuijten, E. and C. J. M. Almekinder. 2008. Mechanisms Explaining Variety Naming by Farmers and Name Consistency of Rice Varieties in the Gambia. Economic Botany 62:148-160.
74. Omanya, G. O., E. Weltzien-Rattunde, D. Sogodogo, M. Sanogo, N. Hanssens, Y. Guero, and R. Zangre. 2007. Participatory Varietal Selection with Improved Pearl Millet in West Africa. Experimental Agriculture 43:5-19.
75. Parry, M. L., O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, and co-authors. 2007. Technical Summary. Pages 23-78 in M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, eds., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
76. Paterniani, E. 1969. Selection for Reproduction Isolation between Two Populations of Maize, Zea mays L. Evolution 23:534-547.
77. Perales, H., S. B. Brush, and C. O. Qualset. 2003. Dynamic Management of Maize Landraces in Central Mexico. Economic Botany 57:21-34.
78. Perales, H., S. B. Brush, and C. O. Qualset, B. F. Benz, and S. B. Brush. 2005. Maize Diversity and Ethnolinguistic Diversity in Chiapas, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 102:949-954.
79. Potts, M. J., G. A. Watson, R. Sinung-Basuki, and N. Gunadi. 1992. Farmer Experimentation as a Basis for Cropping Systems Research: A Case Study Involving True Potato Seed. Experimental Agriculture 28:19-29.
80. Quiros, C. F., D. S. Douches, K. S. Zimmerer, and G. Huestos. 1990. Biochemical and Folk Assessment of Variability of Andean Cultivated Potatoes. Economic Botany 44:254-66.
81. Reed, J. D., Y. Kebede, and L. K. Fussell. 2007. Factors Affecting the Nutritive Value of Sorghum and Millet Crop Residues. http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/ILRI/x5495E/x5495eOd.htm (22 November 2007).
82. Rhoades, R. E. and A. Bebbington. 1995. Farmers Who Experiment: An Untapped Resource for Agricultural Research and Development. Pages 297-307 in M. D. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, and D. Brokensha, eds., The Cultural Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge Systems. London Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., London.
83. Rice, E., M. Smale, and J. -L. Blanco. 1998. Farmers' Use of Improved Seed Selection Practices in Mexican Maize: Evidence and Issues from the Sierra de Santa Marta. World Development 26:1625-1640.
84. Salick, J., N. Cellinese, and S. Knapp. 1997. Indigenous Diversity of Cassava: Generation, Maintenance, Use and Loss among the Amuesha, Peruvian Upper Amazon. Economic Botany 51:6-19.
85. Sambatti, J. B. M., P. S. Martins, and A. Ando. 2001. Folk Taxonomy and Evolutionary Dynamics of Cassava: A Case Study in Utatuba, Brazil. Economic Botany 55:93-105.
86. Sanchez, J. J., G. M. M. Goodman, and C. W. Stuber. 2000. Isozymatic and Morphological Diversity in the Races of Maize in Mexico. Economic Botany 54:43-59.
87. Schneider, S. H., S. Semenov, A. Patwardhan, I. Burton, C. H. D. Magadza, M. Oppenheimer, A. B. Pittock, A. Rahman, J. B. Smith, A. Suarez, and F. Yamin. 2007. Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. Pages 779-810 in M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, eds., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
88. Shigeta, M. 1996. Creating Landrace Diversity: The Case of the Ari People and Ensete (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethiopia. Pages 233-268 in R. Ellen and K. Fukui, eds., Redefining Nature: Ecology, Culture and Domestication. Berg, Oxford, U.K.
89. Smith, M. E., F. Castillo, and F. Gomez. 2001. Participatory Plant Breeding with Maize in Mexico and Honduras. Euphytica 122:551-565.
90. Smithson, J. B. and J. M. Lenné. 1996. Varietal Mixtures: A Viable Strategy for Sustainable Productivity in Subsistence Agriculture. Annals of Applied Biology 128:127-158.
91. Smolders, H., ed. 2006. Enhancing Farmers' Role in Crop Development: Framework Information for Participatory Plant Breeding in Farmer Field Schools. PEDIGREA publication. Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands.
92. Soleri, D. and D. A. Cleveland. 1993. Hopi Crop Diversity and Change. Journal of Ethnobiology 13:203-231.
93. Soleri, D. and S. E. Smith, and D. A. Cleveland. 2000. Evaluating the Potential for Farmer and Plant Breeder Collaboration: A Case Study of Farmer Maize Selection in Oaxaca, Mexico. Euphytica 116:41-57.
94. Sperling, L. and P. Berkowitz. 1994. Partners in Selection. Bean Breeders and Women Bean Experts in Rwanda. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.
95. Steinberg, M. K. 1999. Maize Diversity and Cultural Change in a Maya Agroecological Landscape. Journal of Ethnobiology 19:127-139.
96. Sthapit, B. R., K. D. Joshi, and J. R. Witcombe. 1996. Farmer Participatory Crop Improvement. III. Participatory Plant Breeding, a Case Study for Rice in Nepal. Experimental Agriculture 32: 479-496.
97. Teshome, A., L. Fahrig, J. K. Torrance, J. D. Lambert, T. J. Arnason, and B. R. Baum. 1999. Maintenance of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour, Poaceae) Landrace Diversity by Farmers' Selection in Ethiopia. Economic Botany 53:79-88.
98. Thiele, G., G. Gardner, R. Torrez, and J. Gabriel. 1997. Farmer Involvement in Selecting New Varieties: Potatoes in Bolivia. Experimental Agriculture 33:275-290.
99. Tin, H. Q. 1999. V. Agromorphological Characters and Farmer Perceptions: Data Collection and Analysis. Vietnam. In D. Jarvis, B. Sthapit, and L. Sears, eds., Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity in Situ: A Scientific Basis for Sustainable Agriculture. IPGRI, Rome, Italy. http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Web_version/541/ch06.htm (21 November 2006).
100. Tiwari, R. and A. Das. 1997. Documentation of Local Crop Varieties: Evolving a Participatory Methodology. In L. Sperling and M. Loevinsohn, eds., Using Diversity Enhancing and Maintaining Genetic Resources On-farm. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-9290-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html (IDRC Canada).
101. Tsehaye, Y., T. Berg, B. Tsegaye, and T. Tanto. 2006. Farmers' Management of Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L.) Diversity in Tigray, Ethiopia, and Implications for On-farm Conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:4289-4308.
102. Tunstall, V., A. Teshome, and J. K. Torrance. 2001. Distribution, Abundance and Risk of Loss of Sorghum Landraces in Four Communities in North Shewa and South Welo, Ethiopia. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 48:131-142.
103. Vargas-Ponce, O., D. Zizumbo-Villarreal, and P. Colunga-GarcíaMarin. 2007. In Situ Diversity and Maintenance of Traditional Agave Landraces Used in Spirits Production in West-Central Mexico. Economic Botany 61:362-375.
104. Vaughan, D. A. and T. T. Chang. 1992. In Situ Conservation of Rice Genetic Resources. Economic Botany 46:368-383.
105. Vernooy, R. 2003. Seeds That Give: Participatory Plant Breeding. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa.
106. Virk, D. S., D. N. Singh, S. C. Prasad, J. S. Gangwar, and J. R. Witcombe. 2003. Collaborative and Consultative Participatory Plant Breeding of Rice for the Rainfed Uplands of East India. Euphytica 132:95-108.
107. Voss, J. 1992. Conserving and Increasing On-farm Genetic Diversity: Farmer Management of Varietal Bean Mixtures in Central Africa. Pages 34-51 (Chapter 2) in J. L. Moock and R. E. Rhoades, eds., Diversity, Farmer Knowledge and Sustainability. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y.
108. Weltzien, E., M. L. Whitaker, and M. M. Anders. 1996. Farmer Participation in Pearl Millet Breeding for Marginal Environments. Pages 128-143 in P. Eyzaguirre and M. Iwanaga, eds., Participatory Plant Breeding. Proceedings of a Workshop on Participatory Plant Breeding, 26-29 July 1995, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
109. Weltzien, E., M. L. Whitaker, and M. M. Anders, M. E. Smith, L. S. Meitzner, and L. Sperling. 2003. Technical and Institutional Issues in Participatory Plant Breeding-Done from a Perspective of Farmer Plant Breeding. A Global Analysis of Issues, Results and Current Experience. PPB Monograph No 1. Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Columbia.
110. Witcombe, J. R., P. Petre, S. Jones, and A. Joshi. 1999. Farmer Participatory Crop Improvement. IV. The Spread and Impact of a Rice Variety Identified by Participatory Varietal Selection. Experimental Agriculture 35:471-487.
111. Zeven, A. C. 2000. Traditional Maintenance Breeding of Landraces. 1. Data by Crop. Euphytica 116:65-85.
112. Zimmerer, K. S. 1991. Managing Diversity in Potato and Maize Fields of the Peruvian Andes. Journal of Ethnobiology 11:23-49.