Synthetic nitrogen fertilizers deplete soil nitrogen: A global dilemma for sustainable cereal production

Journal of Environmental Quality

Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 2295-2314

  Mulvaney, R L ^a   Khan, S A ^a   Ellsworth, T R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BASELINE DATA; CEREAL PRODUCTION; CROP ROTATION; CROPPING SYSTEMS; GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS; GRADUAL TRANSITION; GRAIN PRODUCTION; INHERENT EFFECT; LONG-TERM SUSTAINABILITY; LOW-YIELD; MICROBIAL C; N FERTILIZATION; N REMOVAL; NET LOSS; SOIL NITROGEN; SOIL ORGANIC C; SOIL PRODUCTIVITY; TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES; TILLAGE PRACTICES; WORLD POPULATION;

AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS; CROPS; FORESTRY; GRAIN (AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT); SOILS;

NITROGEN FERTILIZERS;

NITROGEN FERTILIZER; ORGANIC CARBON;

AGRONOMY; ARTICLE; CEREAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; CROP PRODUCTION; CROP ROTATION; CROPPING SYSTEM; FERTILIZATION; GEOGRAPHY; LEGUME; NITROGEN DEPOSITION; NONHUMAN; SOIL POLLUTION; TILLAGE;

BIOMASS; CEREALS; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION; FERTILIZERS; FOOD SUPPLY; INTERNATIONALITY; NITROGEN; SOIL;

EID: 70350721933     PISSN: 00472425     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2134/jeq2008.0527     Document Type: Article

References (264)

1. Aggarwal, P.K., S.K. Bandyopadhyay, H. Pathak, N. Kalra, S. Chander, and S. Kumar. 2000. Analysis of yield trends of the rice-wheat system in northwestern India. Outlook Agric. 29:259-268.
2. Albrecht, W.A. 1938. Variable levels of biological activity in Sanborn Field after fifty years of treatment. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 3:77-82.
3. Anderson, F.N., and G.A. Peterson. 1972. Effects of continuous corn (Zea mays L.), manuring, and nitrogen fertilization on yield and protein content of the grain and on the soil nitrogen content. Agron. J. 65:697-700.
4. Aref, S., D. Bullock, and D. Bullock. 1997. Consideration of farmer perception of risk, rainfall probability and realistic production functions in the calculation of economic optimum nitrogen rates for corn. p. 51-56. In R.G. Hoeft (ed.) 1997 Illinois fertilizer conference proceedings. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Available at http://frec.cropsci.illinois. edu/1997/report6/index.htm (verified 22 July 2009).
5. Aref, S., and M.M. Wander. 1998. Long-term trends of corn yield and soil organic matter in different crop sequences and soil fertility treatments on the Morrow Plots. Adv. Agron. 62:153-197.
6. Aslam, M., N.I. Hashmi, A. Majid, and P.R. Hobbs. 1993. Improving wheat yield in the rice-wheat cropping system of the Punjab through fertilizer management. Pakistan J. Agric. Res. 14:1-7.
7. Aulenbach, B.T., H.T. Buxton, W.T. Battaglin, and R.H. Coupe. 2007. Streamflow and nutrient fluxes of the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin and subbasins for the period of record through 2005. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-11080 Available at http://toxics.usgs.gov/ pubs/of-2007-1080/index.html (verified 22 July 2009).
8. Baker, J.M., T.E. Ochsner, R.T. Venterea, and T.J. Griffis. 2007. Tillage and soil carbon sequestration: What do we really know? Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 118:1-5.
9. Balabane, M., and J. Balesdent. 1992. Input of fertilizer-derived labelled N to soil organic matter during a growing season of maize in the field. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24:89-96.
10. Bansil, P.C. 2004. Agricultural subsidies. A global view. p. 39-65. In B. Dorin and T. Jullien (ed.) Agricultural incentives in India. Past trends and prospective paths towards sustainable development. Manohar Publ., New Delhi, India.
11. Barah, B.C. 2004. Agricultural production system and environmental stability. Lesson from long term manurial experimental trials. p. 281-294. In B. Dorin and T. Jullien (ed.) Agricultural incentives in India. Past trends and prospective paths towards sustainable development. Manohar Publ., New Delhi, India.
12. Barker, D.W., J.E. Sawyer, and M.M. Al-Kaisi. 2006a. Assessment of the amino sugar-nitrogen test on Iowa soils: I. Evaluation of soil sampling and corn management practices. Agron. J. 98:1345-1351.
13. Barker, D.W., J.E. Sawyer, M.M. Al-Kaisi, and J.P. Lundvall. 2006b. Assessment of the amino sugar-nitrogen test on Iowa soils: II. Field correlation and calibration. Agron. J. 98:1352-1358.
14. Bationo, A. 2007. Lessons learnt from long-term experiments in Africa. Kungl. Skogs- lantbruksakad. tidskr. 146:30-40.
15. Bélanger, G., J.E. Richards, P. Milburn, and D. Walker. 1998. Influence of previous cropping practices on the response of spring wheat to applied N. Can. J. Soil Sci. 78:267-273.
16. Bhandari, A.L., J.K. Ladha, H. Pathak, A.T. Padre, D. Dawe, and R.K. Gupta. 2002. Yield and soil nutrient changes in a long-term rice-wheat rotation in India. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66:162-170.
17. 15N-depleted fertilizer in irrigated corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 43:528-533.
18. Bjarnason, S. 1989. The long-term soil fertility experiments in southern Sweden: III. Soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics. Acta Agric. Scand. 39:361-371.
19. Black, A.L., and D.L. Tanaka. 1997. A conservation tillage-cropping systems study in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. p. 335-342. In E.A. Paul et al (ed.) Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems: Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
20. Blackmer, A.M., T.F. Morris, and G.D. Binford. 1992. Predicting N fertilizer needs for corn in humid regions: Advances in Iowa. p. 57-72. In B.R. Bock and K.R. Kelley (ed.) Predicting N fertilizer needs for corn in humid regions. Bull. Y-226. Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL.
21. Blackmer, A.M., and C.A. Sanchez. 1988. Response of corn to nitrogen- 15-labeled anhydrous ammonia with and without nitrapyrin in Iowa. Agron. J. 80:95-102.
22. Bosch, M., and A. Amberger. 1983. Einfluß langjähriger Düngung mit verschiedenen N-Formen auf pH-Wert, Humusfraktionen, biologische Aktivität und Stickstoff dynamik einer Acker-Braunerde. Z. Pflanzenernähr. Bodenkde. 146:714-724.
23. Bremner, J.M. 1996. Nitrogen-Total. p. 1085-1121. In D.L. Sparks et al (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser. 5. SSSA, Madison, WI.
24. Broadbent, F.E., and T. Nakashima. 1968. Plant uptake and residual value of six tagged nitrogen fertilizers. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 32:388-392.
25. Brye, K.R., and J.M. Norman. 2004. Land-use effects on anion-associated cation leaching in response to above-normal precipitation. Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 32:235-248.
26. Bundy, L.G., and T.W. Andraski. 1995. Soil yield potential effects on performance of soil nitrate tests. J. Prod. Agric. 8:561-568.
27. Bushong, J.T., T.L. Roberts, W.J. Ross, R.J. Norman, N.A. Slaton, and C.E. Wilson, Jr. 2008. Evaluation of distillation and diffusion techniques for estimating hydrolyzable amino sugar-nitrogen as a means of predicting nitrogen mineralization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72:992-999.
28. Byerlee, D., M. Ali, and A. Siddiq. 2003. Sustainability of the rice-wheat system in Pakistan's Punjab: How large is the problem? p. 77-95. In J.K. Ladha et al (ed.) Improving the productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat systems: Issues and impacts. ASA Spec. Publ. No.65. ASA, Madison, WI.
29. Byerlee, D., and A. Siddiq. 1994. Has the Green Revolution been sustained? The quantitative impact of the seed-fertilizer revolution in Pakistan revisited. World Dev. 22:1345-1361.
30. Calderini, D.F., and G.A. Slafer. 1998. Changes in yield and yield stability in wheat during the 20th century. Field Crops Res. 57:335-347. (Pubitemid 28324931)
31. Camargo, J.A., and A. Alonso. 2006. Ecological and toxicological effects of inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global assessment. Environ. Int. 32:831-849.
32. Campbell, C.A., B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, F. Selles, and D. Curtin. 1996a. Tillage and crop rotation effects on soil organic C and N in a coarse-textured Typic Haploboroll in southwestern Saskatchewan. Soil Tillage Res. 37:3-14. (Pubitemid 126651965)
33. Campbell, C.A., B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, F. Selles, and D. Curtin. 1996b. Long-term effects of tillage and crop rotations on soil organic C and total N in a clay soil in southwestern Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76:395-401.
34. Campbell, C.A., M. Schnitzer, G.P. Lafond, R.P. Zentner, and J.E. Knipfel. 1991. Thirty-year crop rotations and management practices effects on soil and amino nitrogen. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55:739-745.
35. Campbell, C.A., and W. Souster. 1982. Loss of organic matter and potentially mineralizable nitrogen from Saskatchewan soils due to cropping. Can. J. Soil Sci. 62:651-656.
36. Campbell, C.A., and R.P. Zentner. 1993. Soil organic matter as influenced by crop rotations and fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57:1034-1040.
37. Campbell, C.A., and R.P. Zentner. 1997. Crop production and soil organic matter in long-term crop rotations in the semi-arid Northern Great Plains of Canada. p. 317-334. In E.A. Paul et al (ed.) Soil organic matter in temperate ecosystems: Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
38. 15N-labelled fertilizers. Eur. J. Agron. 11:145-155.
39. Cassman, K.G. 1999. Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: Yield potential, soil quality, and precision agriculture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:5952-5959.
40. Cassman, K.G., S.K. De Datta, D.C. Olk, J. Alcantara, M. Samson, J. Descalsota, and M. Dizon. 1995. Yield decline and the nitrogen economy of long-term experiments on continuous, irrigated rice systems in the tropics. p. 181-222. In R. Lal and B.A. Stewart (ed.) Soil management. Experimental basis for sustainability and environmental quality. Lewis Publ., Boca Raton, FL.
41. Cassman, K.G., A. Dobermann, D.T. Walters, and H. Yang. 2003. Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Ann. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28:315-358.
42. Cassman, K.G., S. Peng, D.C. Olk, J.K. Ladha, W. Reichardt, A. Dobermann, and U. Singh. 1998. Opportunities for increased nitrogen-use efficiency from improved resource management in irrigated rice systems. Field Crops Res. 56:7-39. (Pubitemid 28278282)
43. Cassman, K.G., and P.L. Pingali. 1995. Intensification of irrigated rice systems: Learning from the past to meet future challenges. GeoJournal 35:299-305.
44. Chanda, T.K. 2007. Agricultural subsidy: The life saving support. Ind. J. Fertil. 3(2):11-16.
45. Christensen, B.T., J. Petersen, and U.M. Trentemøller. 2006. The Askov long-term experiments on animal manure and mineral fertilizers: The Lermarken site 1894-2004. DIAS Rep. Plant Prod. No.121. DIAS, Tjele, Denmark.
46. 14C-labelled maize and glucose, and on priming effect in saline alkaline soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 37:681-691.
47. Conley, D.J., J. Carstensen, G. Ærtebjerg, P.B. Christensen, T. Dalsgaard, J.L.S. Hansen, and A.B. Josefson. 2007. Long-term changes and impacts of hypoxia in Danish coastal waters. Ecol. Appl. 17:S165-S184.
48. Cope, J.T., Jr., D.G. Sturkie, and A.E. Hiltbold. 1958. Effects of manure, vetch, and commercial nitrogen on crop yields and carbon and nitrogen contents of a fine sandy loam over a 30-year period. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 22:524-527.
49. Cornfield, A.H. 1960. Ammonia released on treating soils with N sodium hydroxide as a possible means of predicting the nitrogen-supplying power of soils. Nature 187:260-261.
50. Crozier, C.R., L.D. King, and R.J. Volk. 1998. Tracing nitrogen movement in corn production systems in the North Carolina Piedmont: A nitrogen-15 study. Agron. J. 90:171-177.
51. 2O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8:389-395.
52. min test. Field Crops Res. 105:48-55.
53. Dalal, R.C., W.M. Strong, E.J. Weston, J.E. Cooper, K.J. Lehane, A.J. King, and C.J. Chicken. 1995. Sustaining productivity of a Vertisol at Warra, Queensland, with fertilisers, no-tillage, or legumes: 1. Organic matter status. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 35:903-913.
54. Dam Kofoed, A. 1982. Humus in long term experiments in Denmark. p. 241-258. In D. Boels et al (ed.) Soil degradation. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
55. Davis, R.L., J.J. Patton, R.K. Teal, Y. Tang, M.T. Humphreys, J. Mosali, K. Girma, J.W. Lawles, S.M. Moges, A. Malapati, J. Si, H. Zhang, S. Deng, G.V. Johnson, R.W. Mullen, and W.R. Raun. 2003. Nitrogen balance in the Magruder Plots following 109 years in continuous winter wheat. J. Plant Nutr. 26:1561-1580.
56. Dawe, D., and A. Dobermann. 1999. Defining productivity and yield. IRRI Disc. Paper Ser. No.33. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Baños, Philippines. Available at http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/ Productivityd33.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
57. Dawe, D., A. Dobermann, P. Moya, S. Abdulrachman, Bijay Singh, P. Lal, S.Y. Li, B. Lin, G. Panaullah, O. Sariam, Y. Singh, A. Swarup, P.S. Tan, and Q.-X. Zhen. 2000. How widespread are yield declines in long-term rice experiments in Asia? Field Crops Res. 66:175-193.
58. De Datta, S.K., K.A. Gomez, and J.P. Descalsota. 1988. Changes in yield response to major nutrients and in soil fertility under intensive rice cropping. Soil Sci. 146:350-358.
59. Dev, G., and D.A. Rennie. 1979. Isotope studies on the comparative efficiency of nitrogenous sources. Aust. J. Soil Res. 17:155-162.
60. Diaz, R.J. 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world. J. Environ. Qual. 30:275-281.
61. Digar, S. 1958. Effect of ammonium sulphate and farmyard manure on the yield of paddy and on soil. J. Agric. Sci. 50:219-226.
62. Djokoto, R.K., and D. Stephens. 1961. Thirty long-term fertilizer experiments under continuous cropping in Ghana: II. Soil studies in relation to the effects of fertilizers and manures on crop yields. Empire J. Exp. Agric. 29:245-258.
63. Dodge, D.A., and H.E. Jones. 1948. The effect of long-time fertility treatments on the nitrogen and carbon content of a prairie soil. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 40:778-785.
64. Doran, J.W., E.T. Elliott, and K. Paustian. 1998. Soil microbial activity, nitrogen cycling, and long-term changes in organic carbon pools as related to fallow tillage management. Soil Tillage Res. 49:3-18.
65. Dou, F., A.L. Wright, and F.M. Hons. 2008. Sensitivity of labile soil organic carbon to tillage in wheat-based cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72:1445-1453.
66. Drinkwater, L.E., P. Wagoner, and M. Sarrantonio. 1998. Legume-based cropping systems have reduced carbon and nitrogen losses. Nature 396:262-265.
67. Duxbury, J.M., I.P. Abrol, R.K. Gupta, and K.F. Bronson. 2000. Analysis of long-term soil fertility experiments with rice-wheat rotations in south Asia. p. vii-xxii. In I.P. Abrol et al (ed.) Long-term soil fertility experiments in rice-wheat cropping systems. Rice-Wheat Consort. Paper Ser. 6. Rice-Wheat Consort. for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India. Available at http://www.rwc.cgiar.org/new/docs/summary.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
68. Dyke, G.V., B.J. George, A.E. Johnston, P.R. Poulton, and A.D. Todd. 1983. The Broadbalk wheat experiment 1968-78: Yields and plant nutrients in crops grown continuously and in rotation. p. 5-44. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1982. Part 2. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
69. Eichner, M.J. 1990. Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized soils: Summary of available data. J. Environ. Qual. 19:272-280.
70. El-Haris, M.K., V.L. Cochran, L.F. Elliott, and D.F. Bezdicek. 1983. Effect of tillage, cropping, and fertilizer management on soil nitrogen mineralization potential. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 47:1157-1161.
71. Fernández, F.G., S.A. Ebelhar, E.D. Nafziger, and R.G. Hoeft. 2009. Managing nitrogen. p. 113-132. In Illinois agronomy handbook, 24th ed. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
72. Fernández, J.-E., J.-M. Murillo, F. Moreno, F. Cabrera, and E. Fernández-Boy. 1998. Reducing fertilization for maize in southwest Spain. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 29:2829-2840.
73. Fertilizer Market Bulletin. 2008. FMB weekly fertilizer report. Available at http://www.fmb-group.co.uk (verified 22 July 2009).
74. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2009. FAOSTAT. Available at http:// faostat.fao.org (verified 22 July 2009).
75. Fox, R.H., and W.P. Piekielek. 1983. Response of corn to nitrogen fertilizer and the prediction of soil nitrogen availability with chemical tests in Pennsylvania. Bull. 843. Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA.
76. Garner, H.V., and G.V. Dyke. 1969. The Broadbalk yields. p. 26-49. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1968. Part 2. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
77. Garz, J., and E. Hagedorn. 1990. Der Versuch 'Ewiger Roggenbau' nach 110 Jahren. p. 9-30. In H.-J. Liste (ed.) 110 Jahre Ewige Roggenbau. Martin- Luther-Universität, Halle, Germany.
78. Garz, J., A.P. Scerbakov, and M. Rossbach. 1982. Der Stickstoff im Boden des Versuches Ewiger Roggenbau (Halle) und seine Pflanzenverfügbarkeit. Tag.-Ber., Akad. Landwirtsch.-Wiss. DDR 205:195-202.
79. 15N-labelled fertilizer applied to spring barley grown on soils of contrasting nutrient status. Plant Soil 195:83-98.
80. Glendining, M.J., and D.S. Powlson. 1990. 130 years of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer applications to the Broadbalk wheat experiment: The effect on soil organic nitrogen. p. 9-13. In Trans. 14th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. Vol.IV. Int. Soc. Soil Sci., Kyoto, Japan.
81. Gokhale, N.G. 1959. Soil nitrogen status under continuous cropping and with manuring in the case of unshaded tea. Soil Sci. 87:331-333.
82. Goolsby, D.A., and W.A. Battaglin. 2001. Long-term changes in concentrations and flux of nitrogen in the Mississippi River Basin, USA. Hydrol. Processes 15:1209-1226.
83. Graham, M.H., R.J. Haynes, and J.H. Meyer. 2002. Soil organic matter content and quality: Effects of fertilizer applications, burning and trash retention on a long-term sugarcane experiment in South Africa. Soil Biol. Biochem. 34:93-102.
84. Green, C.J., A.M. Blackmer, and R. Horton. 1995. Nitrogen effects on conservation of carbon during corn residue decomposition in soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59:453-459.
85. Hafiez, M. 2008. Fertilizer subsidy in Pakistan. Proc. IFA Crossroads Asia-Pacific 2008 Conf. International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris. Available at http://fertilizer.org/ifacontent/download/15841/228444/version/1/ file/2008-melbourne-hafiez-slides.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
86. Hahn, J., and P.J. Crutzen. 1982. The role of fixed nitrogen in atmospheric photochemistry. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London Ser. B 296:521-541.
87. Harper, H.J. 1959. 65 years of continuous wheat. Bull. B-531. Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, OK.
88. Hauck, R.D. 1971. Quantitative estimates of nitrogen-cycle processes: Concepts and review. p. 65-80. In Nitrogen-15 in soil-plant studies. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.
89. Havlin, J.L., J.D. Beaton, S.L. Tisdale, and W.L. Nelson. 2005. Soil fertility and fertilizers: An introduction to nutrient management. 7th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
90. Herman, D.J., K.K. Johnson, C.H. Jaeger, III, E. Schwartz, and M.K. Firestone. 2006. Root influence on nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in Avena barbata rhizosphere soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70:1504-1511.
91. Hochberg, Y. 1988. A sharper Bonferroni procedure for multiple tests of significance. Biometrika 75:800-802.
92. Hoeft, R.G., and T.R. Peck. 2002. Soil testing and fertility. p. 91-131. In Illinois agronomy handbook, 23rd ed. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
93. Houot, S., R. Chaussod, C. Hounemenou, E. Barriuso, and S. Bourgeois. 1987. Differences induced in the soil organic matter characteristics and microbial activity by various management practices in long term field experiments. p. 435-443. In J. Bethelin and J. Bauld (ed.) Diversity of environmental biogeochemistry. Int. Symp. Environ. Biogeochem., 8th. Marcel Dekker, New York.
94. Hutton, J.G. 1938. Thirty years of soil fertility investigations in South Dakota. Bull. 325. South Dakota State Coll., Brookings, SD.
95. Ikonomova, E., V. Koutev, and R. Balabanova-Georgieva. 1999. Changes in nitrogen regime of cinnamonic-podzolic soil in south Bulgaria as affected by long-term mineral and organic-mineral fertilization. Bulgarian J. Agric. Sci. 5:128-130.
96. International Rice Research Institute. 2008. The rice crisis: What needs to be done? Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Baños, Philippines. Available at http:// solutions.irri.org/images/the-rice-crisis.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
97. Izaurralde, R.C., W.B. McGill, J.A. Robertson, N.G. Juma, and J.J. Thurston. 2001. Carbon balance of the Breton Classical Plots over half a century. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:431-441.
98. Jansson, S.L. 1958. Tracer studies on nitrogen transformations in soil. Ann. Roy. Agric. Coll. Sweden 24:101-361.
99. Jansson, S.L., M.J. Hallam, and W.V. Bartholomew. 1955. Preferential utilization of ammonium over nitrate by micro-organisms in the decomposition of oat straw. Plant Soil 6:382-390.
100. Jansson, S.L., and J. Persson. 1982. Mineralization and immobilization of soil nitrogen. p. 229-252. In F.J. Stevenson et al (ed.) Nitrogen in agricultural soils. Agron. Monogr. 22. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
101. Janzen, H.H. 1987. Effect of fertilizer on soil productivity in long-term spring wheat rotations. Can. J. Soil Sci. 67:165-174.
102. Jenkinson, D.S., and A.E. Johnston. 1977. Soil organic matter in the Hoosfield continuous barley experiment. p. 87-101. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1976. Part 2. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
103. Jones, M.J. 1971. The maintenance of soil organic matter under continuous cultivation at Samaru, Nigeria. J. Agric. Sci. 77:473-482.
104. Jordan, D., R.J. Miles, V.C. Hubbard, and T. Lorenz. 2004. Effect of management practices and cropping systems on earthworm abundance and microbial activity in Sanborn Field: A 115-year-old agricultural field. Pedobiologia 48:99-110. (Pubitemid 38463912)
105. Kanchikerimath, M., and D. Singh. 2001. Soil organic matter and biological properties after 26 years of maize-wheat-cowpea cropping as affected by manure and fertilization in a Cambisol in semiarid region of India. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 86:155-162.
106. Khan, S.A., R.L. Mulvaney, T.R. Ellsworth, and C.W. Boast. 2007. The myth of nitrogen fertilization for soil carbon sequestration. J. Environ. Qual. 36:1821-1832.
107. Khan, S.A., R.L. Mulvaney, and R.G. Hoeft. 2001. A simple soil test for detecting sites that are nonresponsive to nitrogen fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:1751-1760.
108. Kirchmann, H., J. Persson, and K. Carlgren. 1994. The Ultuna long-term soil organic matter experiment, 1956-1991. Rep. No.17. Swedish Univ. of Agric. Sci., Uppsala, Sweden.
109. Kolberg, R.L., D.G. Westfall, and G.A. Peterson. 1999. Influence of cropping intensity and nitrogen fertilizer rates on in situ nitrogen mineralization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63:129-134.
110. t-Gehalt von Schwarzerde. Arch. Acker- Pflanzenbau Bodenk. 22:175-183.
111. Körschens, M., A. Weigel, and E. Schulz. 1998. Turnover of soil organic matter (SOM) and long-term balances- tools for evaluating sustainable productivity of soils. Z. Pflanzenernähr. Bodenkde. 161:409-424.
112. Kretschmann, S., H. Peschke, and C. Müller. 1991. Stickstoff - und kohlenstoff charakteristische Bodenkennwerte divergierender Prüfgliedpaare von drei statischen Dauerversuchen- Kohlenstoff auswertung. Arch. Acker- Pflanzenbau Bodenk. 35:41-48.
113. Kumar, A., and D.S. Yadav. 2001. Long-term effects of fertilizers on the soil fertility and productivity of a rice-wheat system. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 186:47-54.
114. Kundler, P. 1970. Ausnutzung, Festlegung und Verluste von Düngemittelstickstoff. Übersicht internationaler Ergebnisse der Grundlagenforschung während der letzten zehn Jahre. Albrecht-Thaer- Arch. 14:191-210.
115. Kundu, A.L., and R.C. Samui. 2000. Long-term soil fertility experiment in rice-wheat cropping system in West Bengal. p. 63-67. In I.P. Abrol et al (ed.) Long-term soil fertility experiments in rice-wheat cropping systems. Rice-Wheat Consort. Paper Ser. 6. Rice-Wheat Consort. for the Indo- Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India. Available at http://www.rwc.cgiar. org/pubs/39/CPS006-09.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
116. Kundu, S., R. Bhattacharyya, V. Prakash, H.S. Gupta, H. Pathak, and J.K. Ladha. 2007. Long-term yield trend and sustainability of rainfed soybean-wheat system through farmyard manure application in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas. Biol. Fertil. Soils 43:271-280.
117. Ladha, J.K., D. Dawe, H. Pathak, A.T. Padre, R.L. Yadav, Bijay Singh, Yadvinder Singh, Y. Singh, P. Singh, A.L. Kundu, R. Sakal, N. Ram, A.P. Regmi, S.K. Gami, A.L. Bhandari, R. Amin, C.R. Yadav, E.M. Bhattarai, S. Das, H.P. Aggarwal, R.K. Gupta, and P.R. Hobbs. 2003a. How extensive are yield declines in long-term rice-wheat experiments in Asia? Field Crops Res. 81:159-180.
118. Ladha, J.K., D. Dawe, T.S. Ventura, U. Singh, W. Ventura, and I. Watanabe. 2000a. Long-term effects of urea and green manure on rice yields and nitrogen balance. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:1993-2001.
119. Ladha, J.K., K.S. Fischer, M. Hossain, P.R. Hobbs, and B. Hardy. 2000b. Improving the productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains: A synthesis of NARS-IRRI partnership research. IRRI Disc. Paper Ser. No.40. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Baños, Philippines. Available at http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/ pdfs/ricewheat.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
120. Ladha, J.K., H. Pathak, T.J. Krupnik, J. Six, and C. van Kessel. 2005. Efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen in cereal production: Retrospects and prospects. Adv. Agron. 87:85-156.
121. Ladha, J.K., H. Pathak, A. Tirol-Padre, and D. Dawe. 2003b. Productivity trends in intensive rice-wheat cropping systems in Asia. p. 45-76. In J.K. Ladha et al (ed.) Improving the productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat systems: Issues and impacts. ASA Spec. Publ. No.65. ASA, Madison, WI.
122. Last, P.J., D.J. Webb, R.B. Bugg, K.M.R. Bean, M.J. Durrant, and K.W. Jaggard. 1985. Long-term effects of fertilizers at Broom's Barn, 1965- 82. p. 231-249. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1984. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
123. Laursen, A.E., and S.P. Seitzinger. 2004. Diurnal patterns of denitrification, oxygen consumption and nitrous oxide production in rivers measured at the whole-reach scale. Freshwater Biol. 49:1448-1458.
124. Lebbink, G., H.G. van Fassen, C. van Ouwerkerk, and L. Brussard. 1994. The Dutch Programme on Soil Ecology of Arable Farming Systems: Farm management monitoring programme and general results. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 51:7-20.
125. Lesoing, G.W., and J.W. Doran. 1997. Crop rotation, manure, and agricultural chemical effects on dryland crop yield and SOM over 16 years in eastern Nebraska. p. 197-204. In E.A. Paul et al (ed.) Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems: Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
126. Liang, X.Q., H. Li, M.M. He, Y.X. Chen, G.M. Tian, and S.Y. Xu. 2008. The ecologically optimum application of nitrogen in wheat season of ricewheat cropping system. Agron. J. 100:67-72.
127. Liao, H. 2008. The evolution of fertilizer subsidies in China. Proc. IFA Crossroads Asia-Pacific 2008 Conf. International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris. Available at http://fertilizer.org/ifacontent/ download/15834/228332/version/1/file/2008-melbourne-liao-slides. pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
128. López-Bellido, L., R.J. López-Bellido, and F.J. López-Bellido. 2006. Fertilizer nitrogen efficiency in durum wheat under rainfed Mediterranean conditions: Effect of split application. Agron. J. 98:55-62. (Pubitemid 43190529)
129. Lory, J.A., and P.C. Scharf. 2003. Yield goal versus delta yield for predicting fertilizer nitrogen need in corn. Agron. J. 95:994-999.
130. Luong, T.T., L.D. Lieu, V.T. Hoang, and A.C. Pham. 2002. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization of rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown in an acidsulphate soil of the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam. p. 64-68. In Nuclear techniques in integrated plant nutrient, water and soil management. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.
131. Mack, M.C., E.A.G. Schuur, M.S. Bret-Harte, G.R. Shaver, and F.S. Chapin, III. 2004. Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by longterm nutrient fertilization. Nature 431:440-443.
132. Mandac, A.M., and J.C. Flinn. 1983. Farm-level management and nitrogen response of rainfed rice in Bicol, Philippines. Philipp. J. Crop Sci. 8:65-74.
133. Mandal, B.C., A.B. Roy, M.N. Saha, and A.K. Mandal. 1984. Wheat yield and soil nutrient status as influenced by continuous cropping and manuring in a jute-rice-wheat rotation. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 32:696-700.
134. Manna, M.C., A. Swarup, R.H. Wanjari, H.N. Ravankar, B. Mishra, M.N. Saha, Y.V. Singh, D.K. Sahi, and P.A. Sarap. 2005. Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil organic carbon storage, soil quality and yield sustainability under sub-humid and semi-arid tropical India. Field Crops Res. 93:264-280.
135. Martin, J.H., W.H. Leonard, and D.L. Stamp. 1976. Principles of field crop production. 3rd ed. Macmillan, New York.
136. Masilaca, A.S., R.A. Prasad, and R.J. Morrison. 1986. The impact of sugarcane cultivation on three Oxisols from Vanua Levu, Fiji. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) 63:325-330.
137. Mattingly, G.E.G., M. Chater, and A.E. Johnston. 1975. Experiments made on Stackyard Field, Woburn, 1876-1974 III. Effects of NPK fertilisers and farmyard manure on soil carbon, nitrogen and organic phosphorus. p. 61-77. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1974. Part 2. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
138. Mattsson, L. 1987. Four Swedish long-term experiments with N, P and K. 2. Soil data and plant nutrient balances. Swed. J. Agric. Res. 17:161-167.
139. McGill, W.B., H.W. Hunt, R.G. Woodmansee, and J.O. Reuss. 1981. Phoenix, a model of the dynamics of carbon and nitrogen in grassland soils. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm) 33:49-113.
140. 2O flux to incremental fertilizer addition in a continuous maize (Zea mays L.) cropping system. Glob. Change Biol. 11:1712-1719.
141. 15N abundance and changes in total N as influenced by soil management. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana- Champaign, IL.
142. Meints, V.W., L.T. Kurtz, S.W. Melsted, and T.R. Peck. 1977. Long-term trends in total soil N as influenced by certain management practices. Soil Sci. 124:110-116.
143. Meisinger, J.J., J.S. Schepers, and W.R. Raun. 2008. Crop nitrogen requirement and fertilization. p. 563-612. In J.S. Schepers and W.R. Raun (ed.) Nitrogen in agricultural systems. Agron. Monogr. 49. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
144. Melsted, S.W. 1954. New concepts of management of Corn Belt soils. Adv. Agron. 6:121-142.
145. Mercik, S., O. Nowosielski, and M. Paul. 1993. Effect of 35 and 70 years differentiated fertilization and crop rotation on nutrients content in soil at the long term experiments. Zest. Nauk. Akad. Roln. H. Koll. Krak. Sesja Nauk. 37:85-96.
146. Mihaila, V., and C. Hera. 1994. Long-term agricultural experiments in Eastern Europe 12.II: Some recent results from the long-term experiment at Fundulea, Romania. p. 220-227. In R.A. Leigh and A.E. Johnston (ed.) Long-term experiments in agricultural and ecological sciences. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
147. Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force. 2008. Gulf hypoxia action plan 2008 for reducing, mitigating, and controlling hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico and improving water quality in the Mississippi River Basin. USEPA, Washington, DC. Available at http://www.epa.gov/msbasin/pdf/ ghap2008-update082608.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
148. Mitchell, C.C., R.L. Westerman, J.R. Brown, and T.R. Peck. 1991. Overview of long-term agronomic research. Agron. J. 83:24-29.
149. Morel, R., T. Lasnier, and S. Bourgeois. 1984. Les essais de fertilisation de longue durée de la station agronomique de Grignon. INRA, Paris, France.
150. Morris, V.H. 1924. The comparative effects of additions of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on the nitrogen economy of a Wooster silt loam soil. Soil Sci. 18:87-97.
151. Mullins, G., B. Joern, and P. Moore. 2005. By-product phosphorus: Sources, characteristics, and management. p. 829-879. In J.T. Sims and A.N. Sharpley (ed.) Phosphorus: Agriculture and the environment. Agron. Monogr. no.46. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
152. Mulvaney, R.L. 2008. Advances in methodology for research on nitrogen transformations in soils. p. 437-504. In J.S. Schepers and W.R. Raun (ed.) Nitrogen in agricultural systems. Agron. Monogr. 49. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
153. Mulvaney, R.L., S.A. Khan, and T.R. Ellsworth. 2006. Need for a soil-based approach in managing nitrogen fertilizers for profitable corn production. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70:172-182.
154. Mulvaney, R.L., S.A. Khan, R.G. Hoeft, and H.M. Brown. 2001. A soil organic nitrogen fraction that reduces the need for nitrogen fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:1164-1172.
155. Murphy, D.V., A.J. Macdonald, E.A. Stockdale, K.W.T. Goulding, S. Fortune, J.L. Gaunt, P.R. Poulton, J.A. Wakefield, C.P. Webster, and W.S. Wilmer. 2000. Soluble organic nitrogen in agricultural soils. Biol. Fertil. Soils 30:374-387.
156. 15N analysis of an entire Kjeldahl digest. Tech. note 00-01. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL. Available at http://illinoissoilntest.nres.uiuc. edu/~files/papers/TN00-01.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
157. 15N. Tech. note 02-101 Rev. f. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL. Available at http:// illinoissoilntest.nres.uiuc.edu/~files/papers/TN02-01f. pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
158. 2O due to intensifying anoxia on the Indian continental shelf. Nature 408:346-349.
159. Narayan, P., and U. Gupta. 1991. Fertilizer subsidy: Food security nexus. Fert. Res. 28:191-199.
160. Neff, J.C., A.R. Townsend, G. Gleixner, S.J. Lehman, J. Turnbull, and W.D. Bowman. 2002. Variable effects of nitrogen additions on the stability and turnover of soil carbon. Nature 419:915-917. (Pubitemid 35339622)
161. Norman, R.J., D. Guindo, B.R. Wells, and C.E. Wilson, Jr. 1992. Seasonal accumulation and partitioning of nitrogen-15 in rice. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56:1521-1527.
162. Odell, R.T., S.W. Melsted, and W.M. Walker. 1984. Changes in organic carbon and nitrogen of Morrow Plots soils under different treatments, 1904-1973. Soil Sci. 137:160-171.
163. Olk, D.C., K.G. Cassman, E.W. Randall, P. Kinchesh, L.J. Sanger, and J.M. Anderson. 1996. Changes in chemical properties of organic matter with intensified rice cropping in tropical lowland soil. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47:293-303.
164. Olson, R.V. 1980. Fate of tagged nitrogen fertilizer applied to irrigated corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44:514-517.
165. Olson, R.V., L.S. Murphy, H.C. Moser, and C.W. Swallow. 1979. Fate of tagged fertilizer nitrogen applied to winter wheat. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 43:973-975.
166. Parkin, T.B., and T.C. Kaspar. 2006. Nitrous oxide emissions from cornsoybean systems in the Midwest. J. Environ. Qual. 35:1496-1506.
167. Pathak, H., J.K. Ladha, P.K. Aggarwal, S. Peng, S. Das, Yadvinder Singh, Bijay Singh, S.K. Kamra, B. Mishra, A.S.R.A.S. Sastri, H.P. Aggarwal, D.K. Das, and R.K. Gupta. 2003. Trends of climatic potential and on-farm yields of rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Field Crops Res. 80:223-234. (Pubitemid 36199024)
168. Persson, J., and H. Kirchmann. 1994. Carbon and nitrogen in arable soils as affected by supply of N fertilizers and organic manures. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 51:249-255.
169. Peschke, H., M. Körschens, and R. Münchow. 1987. Stickstoff mineralisation unter Einfluß der Düngung in Böden des Statischen Versuches Lauchstädt. Arch. Acker- Pflanzenbau Bodenk. 31:667-675.
170. Petterson, B.D., and E. v. Wistinghausen. 1979. Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on soils and crops. Misc. Publ. No.1. Woods End Agric. Inst., Temple, ME.
171. Pikul, J.L., Jr., J.M.F. Johnson, T.E. Schumacher, M. Vigil, and W.E. Riedell. 2008. Change in surface soil carbon under rotated corn in eastern South Dakota. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72:1738-1744.
172. Pikul, J.L., Jr., T.E. Schumacher, and M. Vigil. 2001. Nitrogen use and carbon sequestered by corn rotations in the northern Corn Belt, U.S. The ScientificWorld 1:707-713.
173. Pingali, P.L., M. Hossain, and R.V. Gerpacio. 1997. Asian rice bowls: The returning crisis? CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
174. Poirier, V., D.A. Angers, P. Rochette, M.H. Chantigny, N. Ziadi, G. Tremblay, and J. Fortin. 2009. Interactive effects of tillage and mineral fertilization on soil carbon profiles. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73:255-261.
175. 15N-labelled fertilizer applied in spring and inputs of nitrogen from the atmosphere. J. Agric. Sci. 107:591-609.
176. Prakash, V., R. Bhattacharyya, G. Selvakumar, S. Kundu, and H.S. Gupta. 2007. Long-term effects of fertilization on some soil properties under rainfed soybean-wheat cropping in the Indian Himalayas. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 170:224-233.
177. Prather, M., D. Ehhalt, F. Dentener, R. Derwent, E. Dlugokencky, E. Holland, I. Isaksen, J. Katima, V. Kirchhoff, P. Matson, P. Midgley, and M. Wang. 2001. Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases. p. 239-287. In Climate change 2001: The scientific basis. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
178. Puhr, L.F. 1945. Soil changes as influenced by cropping and fertilizer treatment. Tech. Bull. 4. South Dakota State Coll., Brookings, SD.
179. Ram, N. 2000. Long-term effects of fertilizers on rice-wheat-cowpea productivity and soil properties in a Mollisols. p. 50-55. In I.P. Abrol et al (ed.) Long-term soil fertility experiments in rice-wheat cropping systems. Rice-Wheat Consort. Paper Ser. 6. Rice-Wheat Consort. for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India. Available at http://www.rwc. cgiar.org/pubs/39/CPS006- 07.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
180. Ramaswamy, V., O. Boucher, J. Haigh, D. Hauglustaine, J. Haywood, G. Myhre, T. Nakajima, G.Y. Shi, and S. Solomon. 2001. Radiative forcing of climate change. p. 349-416. In Climate change 2001: The scientific basis. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
181. Rasmussen, P.E., C.L. Douglas, Jr., H.P. Collins, and S.L. Albrecht. 1998. Long-term cropping system effects on mineralizable nitrogen in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 30:1829-1837.
182. Rasmussen, P.E., and W.J. Parton. 1994. Long-term effects of residue management in wheat-fallow: I. Inputs, yield, and soil organic matter. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58:523-530.
183. Raun, W.R., and G.V. Johnson. 1999. Improving nitrogen use efficiency for cereal production. Agron. J. 91:357-363. (Pubitemid 29402893)
184. Raun, W.R., and J.S. Schepers. 2008. Nitrogen management for improved use efficiency. p. 675-693. In J.S. Schepers and W.R. Raun (ed.) Nitrogen in agricultural systems. Agron. Monogr. 49. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
185. Recous, S., and J.-M. Machet. 1999. Short-term immobilisation and crop uptake of fertiliser nitrogen applied to winter wheat: Effect of date of application in spring. Plant Soil 206:137-149.
186. 15N urea and ammonium nitrate applied to a winter wheat crop. II. Plant uptake and N efficiency. Plant Soil 112:215-224.
187. Recous, S., J.M. Machet, and B. Mary. 1992. The partitioning of fertilizer-N between soil and crop: Comparison of ammonium and nitrate applications. Plant Soil 144:101-111. (Pubitemid 23374119)
188. Recous, S., B. Mary, and G. Faurie. 1990. Microbial immobilization of ammonium and nitrate in cultivated soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22:913-922.
189. Recous, S., D. Robin, D. Darwis, and B. Mary. 1995. Soil inorganic N availability: Effect on maize residue decomposition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27:1529-1538.
190. Reddy, G.B., and K.R. Reddy. 1993. Fate of nitrogen-15 enriched ammonium nitrate applied to corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57:111-115.
191. Regmi, A.P., J.K. Ladha, H. Pathak, E. Pasuquin, C. Bueno, D. Dawe, P.R. Hobbs, D. Joshy, S.L. Maskey, and S.P. Pandey. 2002. Yield and soil fertility trends in a 20-year rice-rice-wheat experiment in Nepal. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66:857-867.
192. Regmi, A.P., S.P. Pandey, and D. Joshy. 2000. Effects of long-term application of fertilizers and manure on soil fertility and crop yields in rice-ricewheat cropping system in Nepal. p. 120-138. In I.P. Abrol et al (ed.) Long-term soil fertility experiments in rice-wheat cropping systems. Rice-Wheat Consort. Paper Ser. 6. Rice-Wheat Consort. for the Indo- Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India. Available at http://www.rwc.cgiar. org/pubs/39/CPS006-15.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
193. Reinertsen, S.A., L.F. Elliott, V.L. Cochran, and G.S. Campbell. 1984. Role of available carbon and nitrogen in determining the rate of wheat straw decomposition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16:459-464.
194. Rennie, R.J., and D.A. Rennie. 1973. Standard isotope versus nitrogen balance criteria for assessing the efficiency of nitrogen sources for barley. Can. J. Soil Sci. 53:73-77.
195. Ribón Carrillo, M.A., S. Salgado García, D.J. Palma-López, and L.D.C. Lagunes-Espinoza. 2003. Propiedades químicas y fisicas de un Vertisol cultivado con caña de azúcar. Interciencia 28:154-159. (Pubitemid 37350640)
196. Rice, C.W., and J.M. Tiedje. 1989. Regulation of nitrate assimilation by ammonium in soils and in isolated soil microorganisms. Soil Biol. Biochem. 21:597-602.
197. Roberts, S.R., J.E. Hill, D.M. Brandon, B.C. Miller, S.C. Scardaci, C.M. Wick, and J.F. Williams. 1993. Biological yield and harvest index in rice: Nitrogen response of tall and semidwarf cultivars. J. Prod. Agric. 6:585-588.
198. Roth, G.W., R.H. Fox, and H.G. Marshall. 1989. Plant tissue tests for predicting nitrogen fertilizer requirements of winter wheat. Agron. J. 81:502-507.
199. Rovira, P., and V.R. Vallejo. 1997. Organic carbon and nitrogen mineralization under Mediterranean climatic conditions: The effects of incubation depth. Soil Biol. Biochem. 29:1509-1520.
200. Rupert, M.G. 2008. Decadal-scale changes of nitrate in ground water of the United States, 1988-2004. J. Environ. Qual. 37:S-240-S-248.
201. Sainju, U.M., B.P. Singh, and W.F. Whitehead. 2002. Long-term effects of tillage, cover crops, and nitrogen fertilization on organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations in sandy loam soils in Georgia, USA. Soil Tillage Res. 63:167-179.
202. Salsac, L., S. Chaillou, J.-F. Morot-Gaudry, C. Lesaint, and E. Jolivet. 1987. Nitrate and ammonium nutrition in plants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 25:805-812.
203. Samui, R.C., A.L. Kundu, D. Mazumdar, and P.K. Mani. 1998. Integrated nutrient management in rice-wheat system in West Bengal. p. 256-259. In A. Swarup et al (ed.) Proc. Natl. Workshop on Long-term Soil Fertil. Manage. Integr. Plant Nutr. Supply. Indian Inst. Soil Sci., Bhopal, India.
204. Sarawad, I.M., D. Singh, D.S. Rana, and K. Kumar. 2001. Nitrogen fractions and their relationships with mineralizable N and its uptake by crops in a long-term fertilizer experiment. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 49:691-694.
205. SAS Institute. 2008. SAS Onlinedoc 9.1.3. SAS Institute, Cary, NC. Available at http://support.sas.com/onlinedoc/913/docMainpage.jsp (verified 22 July 2009).
206. Sawyer, J., E. Nafziger, G. Randall, L. Bundy, G. Rehm, and B. Joern. 2006. Concepts and rationale for regional nitrogen rate guidelines for corn. Iowa State Univ. Ext., Regional Publ. PM2015. Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA. Available at http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM2015. pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
207. Schindler, F.V., and R.E. Knighton. 1999. Fate of fertilizer nitrogen applied to corn as estimated by the isotopic and difference methods. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63:1734-1740.
208. Schlesinger, W.H. 2000. Carbon sequestration in soils: Some caution amidst optimism. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 82:121-127.
209. Schlesinger, W.H. 2008. On the fate of anthropogenic nitrogen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106:203-208.
210. Schmalfuß, K. 1957. Der Feldversuch "Ewiger Roggenbau" in Halle. Phosphorsäure 17:133-143.
211. Schnürer, J., M. Clarholm, and T. Rosswall. 1985. Microbial biomass and activity in an agricultural soil with different organic matter contents. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17:611-618.
212. Sharifi, M., B.J. Zebarth, D.L. Burton, C.A. Grant, and J.M. Cooper. 2007. Evaluation of some indices of potentially mineralizable nitrogen in soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 71:1233-1239.
213. 15N-labelled fertilizer residues in the soil and in the soil microbial biomass. Soil Biol. Biochem. 21:529-533.
214. Shevtsova, L., V. Romanenkov, O. Sirotenko, P. Smith, J.U. Smith, P. Leech, S. Kanzyvaa, and V. Rodionova. 2003. Effect of natural and agricultural factors on long-term soil organic matter dynamics in arable soddypodzolic soils- modeling and observation. Geoderma 116:165-189. (Pubitemid 36837490)
215. Šimon, T. 2005. Aliphatic compounds, organic C and N and microbial biomass and its activity in long-term field experiment. Plant Soil Environ. 51:276-282. (Pubitemid 40870282)
216. Singh, Y., S.P. Singh, and A.K. Bhardwaj. 1998. Long-term effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers on rice-wheat productivity and properties of Mollisols in Himalayan foothills. p. 238-246. In A. Swarup et al (ed.) Proc. Natl. Workshop on Long-term Soil Fertil. Manage. Integr. Plant Nutr. Supply. Indian Inst. Soil Sci., Bhopal, India.
217. Singh, Y., S.P. Singh, and A.K. Bhardwaj. 2000. Long-term effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers on rice-wheat productivity and properties of Mollisols in Himalayan foothills. p. 14-21. In I.P. Abrol et al (ed.) Long-term soil fertility experiments in rice-wheat cropping systems. Rice-Wheat Consort. Paper Ser. 6. Rice-Wheat Consort. for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, India. Available at http://www.rwc. cgiar.org/pubs/39/CPS006- 03.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
218. Smil, V. 2001. Enriching the earth. Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the transformation of world food production. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
219. Smith, G.E. 1942. Sanborn Field: Fifty years of field experiments with crop rotations, manure and fertilizers. Missouri Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 458. Univ. of Missouri, Columbia, MO.
220. Smith, V.H. 2003. Eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems: A global problem. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 10:126-139.
221. Smith, V.T., L.C. Wheeting, and S.C. Vandecaveye. 1946. Effects of organic residues and nitrogen fertilizers on a semiarid soil. Soil Sci. 61:393-410.
222. Snyder, C.S., T.W. Bruulsema, and T.L. Jensen. 2007. Greenhouse gas emissions from cropping systems and the influence of fertilizer management - a literature review. International Plant Nutrition Institute, Norcross, GA. Available at http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/d27fe7f63bc1f cb3852573ca0054f03e/$FILE/IPNI%20BMPs%20&%20GHG.pdf (verified 22 July 2009).
223. Stanford, G., and S.J. Smith. 1972. Nitrogen mineralization potentials of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 36:465-472.
224. Starkey, R.L. 1924. Some observations on the decomposition of organic matter in soils. Soil Sci. 17:293-314.
225. Stevens, W.B., R.G. Hoeft, and R.L. Mulvaney. 2005a. Fate of nitrogen-15 in a long-term nitrogen rate study: I. Interactions with soil nitrogen. Agron. J. 97:1037-1045.
226. Stevens, W.B., R.G. Hoeft, and R.L. Mulvaney. 2005b. Fate of nitrogen-15 in a long-term nitrogen rate study: II. Nitrogen uptake efficiency. Agron. J. 97:1046-1053.
227. Stevens, W.B., R.L. Mulvaney, S.A. Khan, and R.G. Hoeft. 2000. Improved diffusion methods for nitrogen and 15nitrogen analysis of Kjeldahl digests. J. AOAC Int. 83:1039-1046.
228. Stumpe, H., J.L. Wittenmayer, and W. Merbach. 2000. Effects and residual effects of straw, farmyard manuring, and mineral fertilization at Field F of the long-term trial in Halle (Saale), Germany. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 163:649-656.
229. Suzuki, M., K. Kamekawa, S. Sekiya, and H. Shiga. 1990. Effect of continuous application of organic or inorganic fertilizer for sixty years on soil fertility and rice yield in paddy field. p. 14-19. In Trans. 14th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. Vol.IV. Int. Soc. Soil Sci., Kyoto, Japan.
230. Tilman, D., K.G. Cassman, P.A. Matson, R. Naylor, and S. Polasky. 2002. Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418:671-677. (Pubitemid 34886876)
231. Tirol-Padre, A., J.K. Ladha, A.P. Regmi, A.L. Bhandari, and K. Inubushi. 2007. Organic amendments affect soil parameters in two long-term ricewheat experiments. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 71:442-452.
232. Tong, C., C.A.S. Hall, and H. Wang. 2003. Land use change in rice, wheat and maize production in China (1961-1998). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 95:523-536.
233. Tóth, B. 1977. The effect of nutritive conditions on the decomposition of corn-stalk. p. 225-228. In J. Szegi (ed.) Soil biology and conservation of the biosphere. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary.
234. 15N-labeled fertilizer by spring bread wheat at different N rates and application times. Can. J. Soil Sci. 80:533-539.
235. Troeh, F.R., and L.M. Thompson. 2005. Soils and soil fertility. 6th ed. Blackwell, Ames, IA.
236. Turner, R.E., and N.N. Rabalais. 1994. Coastal eutrophication near the Mississippi River delta. Nature 368:619-621.
237. Turner, R.E., N.N. Rabalais, and D. Justic. 2008. Gulf of Mexico hypoxia: Alternate states and a legacy. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:2323-2327.
238. Uhlen, G. 1991. Long-term effects of fertilizers, manure, straw and crop rotation on total-N and total-C in soil. Acta Agric. Scand. 41:119-127.
239. United Nations. 2006. World population prospects: The 2006 revision population database. Available at http://esa.un.org/unpp (verified 22 July 2009).
240. VandenBygaart, A.J., and D.A. Angers. 2006. Towards accurate measurements of soil organic carbon stock change in agroecosystems. Can. J. Soil Sci. 86:465-471.
241. van Fassen, H.G., and G. Lebbink. 1994. Organic matter and nitrogen dynamics in conventional versus integrated arable farming. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 51:209-226.
242. van Kessel, C., T. Clough, and J.W. van Groenigen. 2009. Dissolved organic nitrogen: An overlooked pathway of nitrogen loss from agricultural systems? J. Environ. Qual. 38:393-401.
243. Vanotti, M.B., L.G. Bundy, and A.E. Peterson. 1997. Nitrogen fertilizer and legume-cereal rotation effects on soil productivity and organic matter dynamics in Wisconsin. p. 105-119. In E.A. Paul et al (ed.) Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems: Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
244. Varvel, G.E., and W.W. Wilhelm. 2003. Soybean nitrogen contribution to corn and sorghum in western Corn Belt rotations. Agron. J. 95:1220-1225.
245. Velemis, D., A. Louisakis, and A. Simonis. 1998. Economic rate analysis of nitrogen fertilization in wheat. J. Prod. Agric. 11:37-40.
246. Vitosh, M.L., R.E. Lucas, and G.H. Silva. 1997. Long-term effects of fertilizer and manure on corn yield, soil carbon, and other soil chemical properties in Michigan. p. 129-139. In E.A. Paul et al (ed.) Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems: Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
247. 15N-ammonium nitrate in a spring barley cropping system. Plant Soil 150:167-175.
248. Wagner-Riddle, C., A. Furon, N.L. McLaughlin, I. Lee, J. Barbeau, S. Jayasundara, G. Parkin, P. von Bertoldi, and J. Warland. 2007. Intensive measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from a corn-soybean-wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years. Glob. Change Biol. 13:1722-1736.
249. Waksman, S.A., and F.G. Tenney. 1928. Composition of natural organic materials and their decomposition in the soil: III. The influence of nature of plant upon the rapidity of its decomposition. Soil Sci. 26:155-171.
250. Wander, M.M., S.J. Traina, B.R. Stinner, and S.E. Peters. 1994. Organic and conventional management effects on biologically active soil organic matter pools. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58:1130-1139.
251. Warren, R.G., and A.E. Johnston. 1967. Hoosfield continuous barley. p. 320-338. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1966. Part 2. Lawes Agric. Trust, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
252. Wei, H., Y. He, Q. Li, Z. Liu, and H. Wang. 2007. Summer hypoxia adjacent to the Changjiang Estuary. J. Mar. Syst. 67:292-303.
253. White, J.W. 1927. Soil organic matter and manurial treatments. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 19:389-396.
254. White, J.W. 1932. Nitrogen balance on plots treated with nitrate of soda (1881-1921). p. 38-43. In Bull. 273. Fiftieth anniversary of the Jordan soil fertility plots. Pennsylvania State Coll., State College, PA.
255. White, J.W. 1955. Outstanding lessons from the Jordan soil fertility plots. p. 12-18. In Bull. 613. 75th Anniversary of the Jordan soil fertility plots. Pennsylvania State Univ., State College, PA.
256. White, J.W., and F.J. Holben. 1931. Nitrogen balance in a four-year grain rotation, 1881 to 1921. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 23:723-740.
257. Williams, J.D., C.R. Crozier, J.G. White, R.P. Sripada, and D.A. Crouse. 2007. Comparison of soil nitrogen tests for corn fertilizer recommendations in the humid southeastern USA. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 71:171-180.
258. Yadav, R.L., B.S. Dwivedi, and P.S. Pandey. 2000a. Rice-wheat cropping system: Assessment of sustainability under green manuring and chemical fertilizer inputs. Field Crops Res. 65:15-30.
259. Yadav, R.L., B.S. Dwivedi, K. Prasad, O.K. Tomar, N.J. Shurpali, and P.S. Pandey. 2000b. Yield trends, and changes in soil organic-C and available NPK in a long-term rice-wheat system under integrated use of manures and fertilisers. Field Crops Res. 68:219-246.
260. Yadvinder-Singh, Bijay-Singh, J.K. Ladha, J.S. Bains, R.K. Gupta, Jagmohan- Singh, and V. Balasubramanian. 2007. On-farm evaluation of leaf color chart for need-based nitrogen management in irrigated transplanted rice in northwestern India. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 78:167-176.
261. Yan, D.-Z., D.-J. Wang, R.-J. Sun, and J.-H. Lin. 2006. N mineralization as affected by long-term N fertilization and its relationship with crop N uptake. Pedosphere 16:125-130.
262. Yan, D., D. Wang, and L. Yang. 2007. Long-term effect of chemical fertilizer, straw, and manure on labile organic matter fractions in a paddy soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils 44:93-101.
263. Zhang, H., B. Wang, and M. Xu. 2008. Effects of inorganic fertilizer inputs on grain yields and soil properties in a long-term wheat-corn cropping system in south China. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 39:1583-1599.
264. Zhu, J.G., G. Liu, Y. Han, Y.L. Zhang, and G.X. Xing. 2003. Nitrate distribution and denitrification in the saturated zone of paddy field under rice/wheat rotation. Chemosphere 50:725-732.