Mechanisms of the cardiorenal syndromes

Nature Reviews Nephrology

Volumn 5, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 641-649

  Shamseddin, M Khaled ^a   Parfrey, Patrick S ^a  

^a MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIHYDROPYRIDINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; LOOP DIURETIC AGENT; NESIRITIDE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; NOVEL ERYTHROPOIESIS STIMULATING PROTEIN; RAPAMYCIN; SPIRONOLACTONE; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT;

ACUTE DISEASE; ANEMIA; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; ASCITES; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIORENAL SYNDROME; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MEGADOSE; EDEMA; HEART DISEASE; HEART FAILURE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERVOLEMIA; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY INJURY; KIDNEY PERFUSION; MORTALITY; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ACUTE DISEASE; CHRONIC DISEASE; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; KIDNEY DISEASES;

EID: 70350572950     PISSN: 17595061     EISSN: 1759507X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2009.156     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Ronco, C., House, A. A. & Haapio, M. Cardiorenal syndrome: refining the definition of a complex symbiosis gone wrong. Intensive Care Med. 34, 957-962 (2008).
2. Haldeman, G. A., Croft, J. B., Giles, w. H. & Rashidee, A. Hospitalization of patients with heart failure: National Hospital Discharge Survey, 1985 to 1995. Am. Heart J. 137, 352-360 (1999).
3. Uchino, S., Bellomo, R., Goldsmith, D., Bates, S. & Ronco, C. An assessment of the RiFLe criteria for acute renal failure in hospitalized patients. Crit. Care Med. 34, 1913-1917 (2006). (Pubitemid 43982467)
4. Bagshaw, S. M., George, C., Dinu, i. & Bellomo R. A multi-centre evaluation of the RiFLe criteria for early acute kidney injury in critically ill patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 23, 1203-1210 (2008). (Pubitemid 351767483)
5. Coresh, J., Astor, B. C., Greene, T., eknoyan, G. & Levey, A. S. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition examination Survey. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 41, 1-12 (2003).
6. wencker, D. Acute cardio-renal syndrome: progression from congestive heart failure to congestive kidney failure. Curr. Heart Fail. Rep. 4, 134-138 (2007).
7. Forman, D. et al. incidence, predictors at admission, and impact of worsening renal function among patients hospitalized with heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 43, 61-67 (2004). (Pubitemid 38045917)
8. Adams, K. F. Jr et al. Characteristics and outcomes of patients hospitalized for heart failure in the United States: rationale, design, and preliminary observations from the first 100,000 cases in the acute decompensated heart failure national registry (ADHeRe). Am. Heart J. 149, 209-216 (2005).
9. Fonarow, G. C. et al. Characteristics, treatments, and outcomes of patients with preserved systolic function hospitalized for heart failure: a report from the OPTiMiZe-HF registry. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50, 768-777 (2007).
10. Jose, P. et al. increase in creatinine and cardiovascular risk in patients with systolic dysfunction after myocardial infarction. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 2886-2891 (2006).
11. Goldberg, A. et al. inhospital and 1-year mortality of patients who develop worsening renal function following acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 150, 330-337 (2005).
12. Fonarow, G. C. et al. Risk stratification for inhospital mortality in acutely decompensated heart failure: classification and regression tree analysis. JAMA 293, 572-580 (2005).
13. Smith, G. L. et al. Renal impairment and outcomes in heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47, 1987-1996 (2006).
14. Hillege, H. L. et al. Renal function as a predictor of outcome in a broad spectrum of patients with heart failure. Circulation 113, 671-678 (2006).
15. Bhatia, R. S. et al. Outcome of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in a population-based study. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 260-269 (2006).
16. Kelly, K. J. Acute renal failure: much more than a kidney disease. Semin. Nephrol. 26, 105-113 (2006).
17. Foley, R. N. et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risk for cardiovascular disease, renal replacement, and death in the United States Medicare population, 1998 to 1999. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 489-495 (2005).
18. Rigatto, C. et al. Congestive heart failure in renal transplant recipients: risk factors, outcomes, and relationship with ischemic heart disease. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13, 1084-1090 (2002).
19. Tonelli, M. et al. Chronic kidney disease and mortality risk: a systematic review. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 2034-2047 (2006).
20. Foley, R. N. et al. Clinical and echocardiographic cardiovascular disease in patients starting endstage renal disease therapy: Prevalence, associations and prognosis. Kidney Int. 47, 186-192 (1995).
21. Herzog, C. A., Ma, J. Z. & Collins, A. J. Poor longterm survival after acute myocardial infarction among patients on long-term dialysis. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 799-805 (1998).
22. deFilippi, C. et al. Cardiac troponin T and C-reactive protein for predicting prognosis, coronary atherosclerosis, and cardiomyopathy in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis. JAMA 290, 353-359 (2003).
23. Ohtake, T. et al. High prevalence of occult coronary artery stenosis in patients with chronic kidney disease at the initiation of renal replacement therapy: An angiographic examination. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 1141-1148 (2005).
24. Harnett, J. D. et al. Congestive heart failure in dialysis patients: Prevalence, incidence, prognosis and risk factors. Kidney Int. 47, 884-890 (1995).
25. Foley, R. N., Parfrey, P. S. & Sarnak, M. J. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 32 (5 Suppl. 3), S112-S119 (1998).
26. Johnson, D. W., Craven, A. M. & isbel, N. M. Modification of cardiovascular risk in hemodialysis patients: an evidence-based review. Hemodial. Int. 11, 1-14 (2007).
27. Bongartz, L. G., Cramer, M. J., Doevendans, P. A., Joles, J. A. & Braam, B. The severe cardiorenal syndrome: 'Guyton revisited'. Eur. Heart J. 26, 11-17 (2005).
28. Domanovits, H. et al. Acute renal failure after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Intensive Care Med. 27, 1194-1199 (2001).
29. Howard, P. A. & Dunn, M. I. Aggressive diuresis for severe heart failure in the elderly. Chest 119, 807-810 (2001).
30. Koracevic, G. P., Sakac, D. & Obradovic, S. Pathophysiological mechanisms and drugs leading to decrease in renal function in congestive heart failure. Medicine and Biology 12, 123-129 (2005).
31. Neuhofer, W. & Pittrow, D. Role of endothelin and endothelin receptor antagonists in renal disease. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 36 (Suppl. 3), 78-88 (2006).
32. Nohria, A. et al. Cardiorenal interactions: insights form the eSCAPe trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 1268-1274 (2008).
33. Weinfeld, M. S., Chertow, G. M. & Stevenson, L. W. Aggravated renal dysfunction during intensive therapy for advanced chronic heart failure. Am. Heart J. 138, 285-290 (1999).
34. Winton, F. R. The influence of venous pressure on the isolated mammalian kidney. J. Physiol. 72, 49-61 (1931).
35. Firth, J. D., Raine, A. E. & Ledingham, J. G. Raised venous pressure: a direct cause of renal sodium retention in oedema? Lancet 1, 1033-1035 (1988).
36. Mullens, W. et al. elevated intra-abdominal pressure in acute decompensated heart failure: a potential contributor to worsening renal function? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 300-306 (2008).
37. Mullens, W. et al. Prompt reduction in intraabdominal pressure following large-volume mechanical fluid removal improves renal insufficiency in refractory decompensated heart failure. J. Card. Fail. 14, 508-514 (2008).
38. Shlipak, M. G., Smith, G. L., Rathore, S. S., Massie, B. M. & Krumholz, H. M. Renal function, digoxin therapy, and heart failure outcomes: evidence from the digoxin intervention group trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15, 2195-2203 (2004).
39. Ellison, D. H. Diuretic resistance: physiology and therapeutics. Semin. Nephrol. 19, 581-597 (1999).
40. Almeshari, K., Ahlstrom, N. G., Capraro, F. E. & wilcox, C. S. A volume independent component to postdiuretic sodium retention in humans. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 1878-1883 (1993).
41. Pitt, B. et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone evaluation Study invest igators. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 709-717 (1999).
42. Tamirisa, K. P., Aaronson, K. D. & Koelling, T. K. Spironolactone-induced renal insufficiency and hyperkalemia in patients with heart failure. Am. Heart J. 148, 971-978 (2004).
43. Parfrey, P. S. inhibitors of the renin angiotensin system: proven benefits, unproven safety. Ann. Intern. Med. 148, 76-77 (2008).
44. Juurlink, D. N. et al. Rates of hyperkalemia after publication of the Randomized Aldactone evaluation Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 543-551 (2004).
45. Butler, J. et al. Relationship between heart failure treatment and development of worsening renal function among hospitalized patients. Am. Heart J. 147, 331-338 (2004). (Pubitemid 38176835)
46. Buller, C. E. et al. The profile of cardiac patients with renal artery stenosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 43, 1606-1613 (2004).
47. Maschio, G. et al. effect of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor benazepril on the progression of chronic renal insufficiency. The Angiotensin-Converting-enzyme inhibition in Progressive Renal insufficiency Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 939-945 (1996).
48. Sackner-Bernstein, J. D., Skopicki, H. A. & Aaronson, K. D. Risk of worsening renal function with nesiritide in patients with acutely decompensated heart failure. Circulation 111, 1487-1491 (2005).
49. Roghi, A. et al. impact of acute renal failure following percutaneous coronary intervention on long-term mortality. J. Cardiovasc. Med. (Hagerstown) 9, 375-381 (2008).
50. Kuitunen, A., Vento, A., Suojaranta-Ylinen, R. & Pettila, V. Acute renal failure after cardiac surgery: evaluation of the RiFLe classification. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 81, 542-546 (2006).
51. Schiele, F. et al. impact of renal dysfunction on 1-year mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 151, 661-667 (2006). (Pubitemid 43290257)
52. Rea, M. E. & Dunlap, M. E. Renal hemodynamics in heart failure: implications for treatment. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 17, 87-92 (2008).
53. Struthers, A. D. & MacDonald, T. M. Review of aldosterone- and angiotensin ii-induced target organ damage and prevention. Cardiovasc. Res. 61, 663-670 (2004).
54. Onozato, M. L. et al. Dual blockade of aldosterone and angiotensin ii additively suppresses TGF-beta and NADPH oxidase in the hypertensive kidney. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 22, 1314-1322 (2007).
55. Lee, C. Y. & Burnett, J. C. Jr. Natriuretic peptides and therapeutic applications. Heart Fail. Rev. 12, 131-142 (2007).
56. Nohria, A. et al. Cardiorenal interactions- insights from the eSCAPe trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51, 1268-1274 (2007).
57. Schrier, R. w. & Bansal, S. Pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular failure, and kidney: different from left ventricular failure? Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 1232-1237 (2008).
58. Silverberg, D. S. et al. Anemia, chronic renal disease and congestive heart failure-the cardio renal anemia syndrome: the need for cooperation between cardiologists and nephrologists. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 38, 295-310 (2006).
59. Westenbrink, B. D. et al. Anaemia in chronic heart failure is not only related to impaired renal perfusion and blunted erythropoietin production, but to fluid retention as well. Eur. Heart J. 28, 166-171 (2007).
60. Palazzuoli, A., Gallotta, M., Iovine, F., Nuti, R. & Silverberg, D. S. Anaemia in heart failure: a common interaction with renal insufficiency called the cardio-renal anaemia Syndrome. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 62, 281-286 (2008).
61. Kazory, A. & Ross, E. A. Anemia: the point of convergence or divergence for kidney disease and heart failure? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, 639-647 (2009).
62. Jie, K. E. et al. erythropoietin and the cardiorenal syndrome: Cellular mechanisms on the cardiorenal connectors. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 291, F932-F944 (2006).
63. Gottlieb, S. S. et al. The prognostic importance of different definitions of worsening renal function in congestive heart failure. J. Card. Fail. 8, 136-141 (2002).
64. Hillege, H. et al. Renal function neurohormonal activation and survival in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 102, 203-210 (2000).
65. Palazzuoli, A. et al. effects of beta-erythropoietin treatment on left ventricular remodeling, systolic function, and B-type natriuretic peptide levels in patients with the cardiorenal anemia syndrome. Am. Heart J. 154, 645.e9-645.e15 (2007).
66. Ghali, J. K. et al. Randomized double-blind trial of darbepoetin alfa in patients with symptomatic heart failure and anemia. Circulation 117, 526-535 (2008).
67. Mittalhenkle, A. et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and incident acute renal failure in older adults: the cardiovascular health study. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 450-456 (2008).
68. Payen, D. et al. A positive fluid balance is associated with a worse outcome in patients with acute renal failure. Crit. Care 12, R74 (2008).
69. Rabb, H. et al. Acute renal failure leads to dysregulation of lung salt and water channels. Kidney Int. 63, 600-606 (2003).
70. Figueras, J., Stein, L., Diez, V., Weil, M. H. & Shubin, H. Relationship between pulmonary hemodynamics and arterial pH and carbon dioxide tension in critically ill patients. Chest 70, 466-472 (1976).
71. Blake, P. et al. isolation of "myocardial depressant factor(s)" from the ultrafiltrate of heart failure patients with acute renal failure. ASAIO J. 42, M911-M915 (1996).
72. Meyer, T. w. & Hostetter, T. H. Uremia. N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 1316-1325 (2007).
73. Deswal, A. et al. Cytokines and cytokine receptors in advanced heart failure: an analysis of the cytokine database from the Vesnarinone trial (VeST). Circulation 103, 2055-2059 (2001). (Pubitemid 32373007)
74. Selby, N. M. & Mcintyre, C. w. The acute cardiac effects of dialysis. Semin. Dial. 20, 220-228 (2007).
75. Ronco, C., Bellomo, R. & Ricci, Z. Continuous renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 16 (Suppl. 5), 67-72 (2001). (Pubitemid 32750433)
76. Mann, J. F., Gerstein, H. C., Pogue, J. Bosch, J. & Yusuf, S. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcome and the impact of Ramipril. The HOPe randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 629-636 (2001).
77. Mann, J. F. et al. Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGeT study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 372, 547-553 (2008).
78. McMahon, L. P. & Parfrey, P. S. in Brenner & Rector's The Kidney 8th edn Vol. 2 (eds Brenner, B. M. & Rector, F. C.) 1697-1727 (Saunders elsevier, Philadelpia, 2008).
79. Manjunath, G. et al. Level of Kidney function as a risk factor for cardiovascular outcomes in the elderly. Kidney Int. 63, 1121-1129 (2003). (Pubitemid 36315592)
80. London, G. M. et al. Associations of bone activity, calcium load, aortic stiffness and calcifications in eSRD. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 19, 1827-1835 (2008).
81. Parfrey, P. S. et al. Double-blind comparison of full and partial anemia correction in incident hemodialysis patients without symptomatic heart disease. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 2180-2189 (2005).
82. Rigatto, C., Foley, R. N., Kent, G. M., Guttmann, R. & Parfrey, P. S. Long-term changes in left ventricular hypertrophy after renal transplantation. Transplantation 70, 570-575 (2000).
83. Parfrey, P. S., Harnett, J. D., Griffiths, S., Gault, M. H. & Barre, P. E. Congestive heart failure in dialysis patients. Arch. Intern. Med. 148, 1519-1525 (1988).
84. Rucker, D. & Tonelli, M. Cardiovascular risk and management in chronic kidney disease. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 5, 287-296 (2009).
85. Fort, J. Chronic renal failure: a cardiovascular risk factor. Kidney Int. Suppl. S25-S29 (2005).
86. Schiffrin, E. L., Lipman, M. L. & Mann, J. F. Chronic kidney disease: effects on the cardiovascular system. Circulation 116, 85-97 (2007).
87. Ravani, P. et al. Asymmetrical dimethylarginine predicts progression to dialysis and death in patients with chronic kidney disease: a competing risks modeling approach. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 2449-2455 (2005).
88. Mallamaci, F. et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia predicts cardiovascular outcomes in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 61, 609-614 (2002). (Pubitemid 34102603)
89. Moe, S. M. et al. Medial artery calcification in eSRD patients is associated with deposition of bone matrix proteins. Kidney Int. 61, 638-647 (2002).
90. Chertow, G. M., Burke, S. K., Raggi, P. & Treat to Goal working Group. Sevelamer attenuates the progression of coronary and aortic calcification in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 62, 245-252 (2002).
91. Krane, V. et al. effect of atorvastatin on inflammation and outcome in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus on hemodialysis. Kidney Int. 74, 1461-1467 (2008).
92. Westenfeld, R. et al. Fetuin-A protects against atherosclerotic calcification in CKD. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 20, 1264-1274 (2009).
93. Amann, K. Media calcification and intima calcification are distinct entities in chronic kidney disease. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 1599-1605 (2008).
94. McCullough, P. A., Agrawal, V., Danielewicz, E. & Abela, G. S. Accelerated atherosclerotic calcification and Monckeberg's sclerosis: a continuum of advanced vascular pathology in chronic kidney disease. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 1585-1598 (2008).
95. Berl, T. & Henrich, W. Kidney-heart interactions: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 1, 8-18 (2006).
96. Chertow, G. M. et al. evaluation of Cinacalcet Therapy to Lower Cardiovascular events (eVOLVe): rationale and design overview. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2, 898-905 (2007).
97. Roberts, M. A. et al. B-type natriuretic peptides strongly predict mortality in patients who are treated with long-term dialysis. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3, 1057-1065 (2008).
98. Spanaus, K. S. et al. B-type natriuretic peptide concentrations predict the progression of nondiabetic chronic kidney disease: the Mild-to-Moderate Kidney Disease Study. Clin. Chem. 53, 1264-1272 (2007).
99. Longitano, J. P. et al. Correlation of N-terminal pro brain natriuretic peptide (NT-pronBNP) with depressed left ventricular function and mortality in chronic hemodialysis patients: Results of a two-year outcomes study [abstract]. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 12, 223A (2001).
100. Foley, R. N. et al. Advance prediction of early death in dialysis patients. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 23, 836-845 (1994).
101. Rigatto, C. et al. electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy in renal transplant recipients: prognostic value and impact of blood pressure and anemia. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 14, 462-468 (2003).
102. Parfrey, P. S., Lauve, M., Latremouille-Viau, D. & Lefebvre, P. erythropoietin therapy and left ventricular mass index in CKD and eSRD patients: a meta-analysis. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4, 755-762 (2009).
103. Phrommintikul, A., Haas, S. J., Elsik, M. & Krum, H. Mortality and target haemoglobin concentrations in anemic patients with chronic kidney disease treated with erythropoietin: a meta-analysis. Lancet 369, 381-388 (2007).
104. Pfeffer, M. A. et al. Baseline characteristics in the Trial to Reduce Cardiovascular events with Aranesp Therapy (TReAT). Am. J. Kidney Dis. 54, 59-69 (2009).
105. Siedlecki, A. M., Jin, X. & Muslin, A. J. Uremic cardiac hypertrophy is reversed by rapamycin but not by lowering of blood pressure. Kidney Int. 75, 800-808 (2009).
106. Raine, A. E. Acquired aortic stenosis in dialysis patients. Nephron 68, 159-168 (1994).
107. Rufino, M. et al. Heart valve calcification and calcium x phosphorus product in hemodialysis patients: analysis of optimum values for its prevention. Kidney Int. Suppl. 85, S115-S118 (2003).