"Prospective-Turks" or "Pseudo-Citizens:" Kurds in Turkey

Middle East Journal

Volumn 63, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 597-615

  Yegen, Mesut ^a  

^a MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; SOCIAL STATUS;

EURASIA; TURKEY;

EID: 70350166472     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3751/63.4.14     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. The term "establishment" is used in this article to refer to the historical alliance in Turkey between the bureaucracy (army and diplomatic), bourgeoisie, mainstream political parties, and mainstream media.
2. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi, Gizli celse Zabi{dotless}tlari{dotless} cilt i [Minutes of closed Session vol. i] (Ankara: Is Bankasi{dotless} Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1985), p. 73.
3. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi, Gizli celse Zabi{dotless}tlari{dotless} cilt iii [Minutes of closed Session vol. iii] (Ankara: Is Bankasi{dotless} Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1985), p. 551.
4. The idea of having local autonomy in Turkey was echoed in the 1921 Constitution. According to this Constitution, local provinces in Turkey were to have full autonomy in local affairs.
5. For the 1921 Constitution see Ergun Özbudun, 1921 Anayasasi{dotless} [1921 constitution] (Ankara: Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu Atatürk Arasti{dotless}rma Merkezi, 1992), pp. 43-4, 82-3.
6. On the other hand, the idea of granting autonomy to local provinces is not found in the succeeding Constitution of 1924.
7. For this new Constitution see Suna Kili ve A. Seref Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri [Turkish constitutions] (Ankara: Türkiye Is Bankasi{dotless} Yayi{dotless}ni{dotless}, 2000), p. 139.
8. Mustafa Kemal, Eskisehir-izmit Konusmalari{dotless} (1923) [Eskisehir-izmit Speeches (1923)] (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1993), p.105.
9. Note that while this interview has been published a few times in the Republican period, the statements which indicate that the new regime was to give autonomy to Kurds were censored.
10. For a censored version of this interview see Afet Inan, Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün 1923 Eskisehir ve izmit Konusmalari{dotless} [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's Eskisehir and izmit Speeches] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1982).
11. It is only in 1993 that an uncensored version of this interview was printed.
12. A. Seref Gözübüyük ve Zekai Sezgin, 1924 Anayasasi{dotless} Hakki{dotless}nda Meclis Görüsmeleri [Records of Assembly on 1924 constitution] (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayi{dotless}ni{dotless}, 1957), p. 7.
13. It is important to note that the non-Muslim citizens of the country have been subject to numerous instances of discrimination during the Republican period. For instance, many non-Muslims were fired from their jobs and were denied employment by the bureaucracy. The State Employee Law enacted in 1926 aimed at the Turkification of work life in Turkey. This law defined Turkishness as a necessary condition to become a state employee. Furthermore, the Wealth Tax Law enacted in 1942 was designed to confiscate a part of the wealth owned by non-Muslims in Turkey. Likewise, estates owned by the foundations built by non-Muslim citizens were confiscated.
14. For an examination of such practices see the following works: Baskin Oran, Türkiye'de Azi{dotless}nli{dotless}klar [Minorities in Turkey] (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2004)
15. M. Çagatay Okutan, Tek Parti döneminde Azi{dotless}nli{dotless}k Politikalari{dotless} [Policies towards the Minorities in the Single-Party Era] (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 2004)
16. Hüseyin Sadoglu, Türkiye'de ulusçuluk ve dil Politikalari{dotless} [nationalism and Language Policies in Turkey] (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 2003).
17. General Inspectorates were established in 1927, immediately after the Kurdish rebellion of 1925.
18. For a comprehensive work on them see Cemil Koçak, Umumi Müfettislikler [General inspectorates] (Istanbul: Iletisim Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 2003).
19. For this report see Mehmet Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri [Kurdology documents] (Ankara: Özge Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1994), pp. 233-270.
20. In 1925, Kurds, led by a religious leader, Sheikh Said, and Azadi, a clandestine organisation established by a group of former Ottoman army officers, revolted against the Turkish Republic. It took three months for the government forces to suppress the rebellion, during which the rebels seized control of several towns in the East.
21. For an assessment of the rebellion see Robert Olson, The Emergence of Kurdish nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989).
22. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, pp. 253-6.
23. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 255.
24. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 255.
25. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 255.
26. These were mostly the Muslims who were either driven or came from the Balkans to Turkey during the population exchanges and the atrocities which took place at the beginning of the 20th century.
27. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 256-7.
28. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 257.
29. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 259.
30. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 259.
31. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 260.
32. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 261.
33. The report notes that it is likely that 15% of the total population was not recorded.
34. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, p. 238.
35. For the first of these reports see Ahmet Mesut, Ingiliz Belgelerinde Kürdistan [Kurdistan in British documents] (Istanbul: Doz Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1992), pp. 263-286.
36. For the second reports see Koçak, Umumi Müfettislikler, pp. 100-2.
37. The reports were written in 1936 and 1937.
38. Mesut, Ingiliz Belgelerinde Kürdistan, p. 272.
39. Koçak, Umumi Müfettisikler, p. 101.
40. Hilmi Uran, Bazi{dotless} Sark vilayetlerimizde Tatbiki Lüzumlu Temsil Tedbirleri Hakki{dotless}nda Rapor [Report on the Measures of Assimilation to Be implemented in Some Eastern Provinces] (No Place Listed: No Publisher Listed [Ministry of Internal Affairs?], 1944).
41. Uran, Bazi{dotless} Sark vilayetlerimizde Tatbiki Lüzumlu Temsil Tedbirleri Hakki{dotless}nda Rapor, pp. 1-2.
42. Uran, Bazi{dotless} Sark vilayetlerimizde Tatbiki Lüzumlu Temsil Tedbirleri Hakki{dotless}nda Rapor, p. 31.
43. TBMM, Zabi{dotless}t ceridesi [Minutes of the Grand national Assembly of Turkey], Period 2, Vol. 33, p. 153.
44. It is understood from the speech delivered in 1929 by the Prime Minister of the time, Ismet Inön̈, that 2,000 hectares of these persons' estates were to be confiscated.
45. See Yahya Sezai Tezel, Cumhuriyet döneminin iktisadi Tarihi (1923-1950) [The Economic History of the Republican Era (1923-1950)] (Ankara: Yurt Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 1982), p. 346.
46. TBMM, Zabi{dotless}t ceridesi, Period 4, Vol. 23-24, p. 8.
47. Ilhan Tekeli, "Osmanli{dotless} imparatorlgu'ndan Günümüze nüfusun Zorunlu Yer degistirmesi ve iskan Sorunu" ["Compulsory Displacement and the Question of Settelement from the Ottoman Empiure to Today"], Toplum ve Bilim, No. 50 (1990), p. 64.
48. TBMM, Dogu ve Güneydogu Anadolu'da Bosalti{dotless}lan Yerlesim Birimleri nedeniyle Göç Eden Yurttaslari{dotless}mi{dotless}zi{dotless}n Sorunlari{dotless}ni{dotless}n Arasti{dotless}ri{dotless}larak Ali{dotless}nmasi{dotless} Gereken Tedbirlerin Tespit Edilmesi Amaci{dotless}yla Kurulan Meclis Arasti{dotless}rmasi{dotless} Komisyonu Raporu [Report by the Parliament Research commission formed with the objective of Researching the Problems of citizens in Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia Who Migrated Because Their Places of Settlement Were Evacuated, and of Establishing the necessary Measures], Tutanak dergisi 53, Period 20, Ankara, 1998.
49. Füsun Üstel, Zorunlu iç Göç Sonrasi{dotless} Köye dönüs: Ön Rapor [Returning to village after compulsory Migration: Preliminary Report] (Istanbul: TESEV, 2004).
50. Tamer Aker et al, Türkiye'de Ülke içinde Yerinden Edilme Sorunu: Tespitler ve Çözüm Önerileri [The internal displacement Problem in Turkey: Assessment and Solution Proposals] (Istanbul: TESEV, 2005).
51. For the official estimates, see http://isay.icisleri.gov.tr/ortak_icerik/w3.icisleri/2008_faaliyet_raporu.pdf, p. 53.
52. For NGO estimates: http://www.tohav.org/zorunlugoc/5233_sayili_yasa_Izleme_Raporu.pdf.
53. Kili ve Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri, p. 276.
54. Bayrak, Kürdoloji Belgeleri, pp. 233-270.
55. See Resmi Gazete [official Gazette], No. 181199, October 22, 1983.
56. http://www.hukuki.net/kanun/2932.15.frameset.asp.
57. For the instances of changing the names of places see Türkiye Mülki idari Bölümleri: Belediyeler Köyler [division of Home Rule of Turkey: Municipalities, villages], TC Içisleri Bakanli{dotless}gi{dotless} Iller idaresi Genel Müdürlügü, Genel Yayi{dotless}n No: 408 Seri III No. 4.
58. http://www.hukuki.net/kanun/1587.15.frameset.asp.
59. The Population Law of 1972 was amended in 2003. Law 4928, enacted on July 15, 2003, cancelled the statement "in accordance with our national culture."
60. For this amendment see http://www.hukuki.net/kanun/2932.15.frameset.asp.
61. Specifically, figures show: seven boarding schools in Adiyaman, seven in Agri{dotless}, nine in Bingöl, nine in Bitlis, 14 in Diyarbaki{dotless}r, six in Elazi{dotless}g, eight in Erzurum, ten in Hakkari, three in Kars, six in Malatya, nine in Mardin, 13 in Mus, seven in Siirt, ten in Tunceli, nine in Sanliurfa, 14 in Van, six in Batman, and eight in Sirnak.
62. http://apk.meb.gov.tr/yayinlar/2004-2005%20Milli%20Egitim%20Sayisal%20Verileri.
63. The following argument concerning citizenship and Turkishness is largely drawn from an essay the author published elsewehere.
64. See Mesut Yegen, "Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey," Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 40, No. 6 (2004), pp. 51-66.
65. Kili ve Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri, p. 138.
66. Kili ve Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri, p. 44.
67. Kili ve Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri, pp. 188, 283.
68. Gözübüyük ve Sezgin, 1924 Anayasasi{dotless} Hakki{dotless}nda Meclis Görüsmeleri, p. 436.
69. Emphasis added. Gözübüyük ve Sezgin, 1924 Anayasasi{dotless} Hakki{dotless}nda Meclis Görüsmeleri, p. 437.
70. Gözübüyük ve Sezgin, 1924 Anayasasi{dotless} Hakki{dotless}nda Meclis Görüsmeleri, p. 441.
71. While citizenship and Turkishness were identified in Article 54 of the 1961 Constitution and in Article 66 of the 1982 Constitution, the gap between citizenship and Turkishness continued to condition the general spirit of these two Constitutions. Both Constitutions are full of inconsistencies in terminology with regard to the definitions of the state and citizens. While the first article of the 1961 Constitution defined the state as the state of Turkey and the Republic of Turkey, most of the remaining articles used the term Turkish state. Likewise, while many of the articles explaining the rights and duties of citizens used the term "everyone" or "citizens," articles defining the rights and duties regarding public services (Articles 58 and 60) and the conditions required to become a Deputy (Article 68) suddenly utilized the term "every Turk" instead of "everyone" or "citizens." The 1982 Constitution also is marked by the use of a similarly inconsistent terminology. While most articles use the term "everyone" when the "subjects" of the Turkish state are mentioned, there are also articles that use the term "citizens" (Articles 67 and 68), "Turkish citizens" (Articles 59 and 62), and "every Turk" (Articles 70 and 72).
72. For these two Constitutions see Kili ve Gözübüyük, Türk Anayasa Metinleri.
73. For such allegations see http://www.hurriyetim.com.tr/haber/0,,nvid&~232444,00.asp, February 18, 2003
74. Ahmet Uçar, "Hahamlann Torunlari{dotless} Barzaniler" ["Barzanis: The Grandchildren of Hahams"], Tarih ve düsünce, No. 34 (2002)
75. Ahmet Uçar, "Barzanilerin Yahudiligiyle ilgili bir osmanli{dotless} Belgesi" ["An Ottoman Document Concerning Barzanis' Jewishness"], Tarih ve düsünce, No. 36 (2003)
76. Esref Günaydin, Yahudi Kürtler. Babil'in Kayi{dotless}p Çocuklari{dotless} [Jewish Kurds. Babel's Lost children] (Istanbul: Karakutu Yayi{dotless}nlari{dotless}, 2003)
77. Yalçin Küçük, Tekeliyet 2 [Monopoly 2] (Istanbul: Ithaki, 2003).
78. Hasan T. Kösebalaban, "Irak Üzerindeki israil Planlari{dotless} ve Türkiye" ["Israel's Plans for Iraq and Turkey"], http://www.liberal-dt.org.tr/guncel/Kosebalaban/htk_israil.htm
79. Güler Kömürcü, "Gizli Gelismeler" ["Secret Developments"], http://www.aksam.com.tr/arsiv/aksam/2003/10/28/yazarlar/yazarlar154.html.
80. Küçük, Tekeliyet 2, pp. 285-333.
81. See: http://ulkumuz.wordpress.com/2007/02/24/yahudi-kurtler/
82. http://www.biroybil.com/ showthread.php?t=2854.
83. http://www.yenisafak.com.tr/arsiv/2003/aralik/03/g05.html.
84. http://www.milliyet.com/2004/01/19/yazar/bila.html.
85. For the law enacted on July 17, 2004 see http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5233.html.
86. http://www.milliyet.com/2004/01/19/yazar/bila.html.
87. A spring festival celebrated by many peoples of the Middle East and Asia.
88. http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=147163, March 21, 2005.
89. Emphasis added. http://www.hurriyetim.com.tr/haber/0,,sid&~1@w&~2@tarih&~2005-03-22-m@nvid&~553006,00.asp
90. http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=147472&tarih=24/03/2005.
91. http://www.liberal-dt.org.tr/index.php?lang=tr&message=article&art=319.
92. http://www.radikal.com.tr/ek_haber.php.?ek, April 3, 2005.
93. http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2005/04/14/627797.asp.
94. http://www.ankara.edu.tr/yazi.php?yad=2802, March 24, 2005.
95. http://www.ankara.edu.tr/yazi.php?yad=2838, March 30, 2005.
96. The bookstore was owned by a former PKK convict, Seferi Yi{dotless}lmaz. After the bombing, noncommissioned officers Ali Kaya and Özcan Ildeniz, and a PKK informant, Veysel Ates, were captured by civilians. The suspects were sentenced to more than 39 years in prison. However, the Supreme Court decreed that the case should be heard by a military court. Afterwards, the defendants were relased in the first hearing in the military court. It is important to note that the then-Chief of General Staff Yasar B̈ÿkanit said of suspect Ali Kaya, "I know him, he is a good guy."
97. See http://bianet.org/english/minorities/103620-good-guys-released-in-semdinli-trial.
98. http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=170375, November 18, 2005
99. http://www.mil-liyet.com.tr/2005/11/18/guncel/axgun01.html.
100. http://www.bababeniokulagonder.org/index2.html, January 25, 2006.
101. For the figures regarding the campaign in question, see http://www.haydikizlarokula.org, January 25, 2006.
102. http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=126271, August 28, 2004.
103. http://www.hurriyetim.com.tr/haber/0,,sid&~2@tarih&~2005-04-27-m@nvid&~569134,00.asp.
104. http://www.milliyet.com/2005/03/27/guncel/gun02.html.
105. On these recent developments, see http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=34352
106. http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSLK427538.