Capitalism and global queering: National markets, parallels among sexual cultures, and multiple queer modernities

GLQ

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 357-395

  Jackson, Peter A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 70350139476     PISSN: 10642684     EISSN: 15279375     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10642684-2008-029     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. See Neil Miller, Out in the World: Gay and Lesbian Life from Buenos Aires to Bangkok (London: Penguin, 1992);
2. Ken Plummer, "Speaking Its Name: Inventing a Gay and Lesbian Studies," in Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experience, ed. Ken Plummer (London: Routledge, 1992), 3 - 28;
3. Dennis Altman, "The New World of 'Gay' Asia," in Asian and Pacific Inscriptions, ed. Suvendrini Perera (Melbourne: Meridien, 1995), 121 - 38;
4. Gerard Sullivan and Laurence Leong, Gays and Lesbians in Asia and the Pacific: Social and Human Services (New York: Harrington Park, 1995);
5. Dennis Altman, "On Global Queering," Australian Humanities Review, July 1996, www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archive/Issue-July-1996/altman .html#1 (accessed June 17, 2007);
6. Dennis Altman, "Rupture or Continuity? The Internationalization of Gay Identities," Social Text, no.48 (1996): 77 - 94;
7. Peter Drucker, " 'In the Tropics There Is No Sin': Sexuality and Gay-Lesbian Movements in the Third World," New Left Review 218 (1996): 75-101;
8. Dennis Altman, "Global Gaze/Global Gays," GLQ 3 (1997): 417 - 36;
9. Altman, "The Emergence of Gay Identities in Southeast Asia," in Different Rainbows, ed. Peter Drucker (London: Gay Men's, 2000), 137 - 56;
10. Peter Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," in Different Rainbows, 9-42;
11. Peter A. Jackson, "An Explosion of Thai Identities: Global Queering and Reimagining Queer Theory," Culture, Health, and Sexuality 2 (2000): 405 - 24;
12. Dennis Altman, Global Sex (Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 2001).
13. Plummer, "Speaking Its Name," 17.
14. See Altman, "On Global Queering";
15. Altman, "Global Gaze/Global Gays," 424; emphases in original. While convenient to refer collectively to diverse LGBT genders and sexualities, the English term queer is not used locally in all societies.
16. Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel note that at the same time that Western queer theorists began critiquing notions of gay and lesbian identity in the 1990s, groups were "coming together under the gay, lesbian, and sometimes transgender banner in such places as the Philippines, Korea, Ecuador, El Salvador, Bulgaria, and Turkey, even though homosexual interests have traditionally found quite different expressions in these cultures" (Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel, "Gay and Lesbian Movements beyond Borders? National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement," in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement, ed. Barry D. Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and André Krouwel [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999], 8).
17. In 2000 Altman noted "the apparent lack of interest in 'queer' theory in most of the non-Western world, and the continued usage by emerging movements of the terminology 'lesbian' and 'gay' " ("Emergence of Gay Identities in Southeast Asia," 138). While these comments were broadly accurate at the time, more recently queer theory has become increasingly prominent in studies of Asian transgender and homosexual cultures, both in Asia and in the West. The rising influence of queer studies in Asia was reflected in the more than 160 papers presented at the First International Conference of Asian Queer Studies convened by the AsiaPacifiQueer Network in Bangkok in July 2005. A conference report including an archive of some conference papers is at bangkok2005.anu.edu.au/.
18. Other conference papers are published in "Of Queer Import(s): Sexualities, Genders, and Rights in Asia," ed. James Welker and Lucetta Kam, special issue, Intersections: Gender, History, and Culture in the Asian Context, no.14 (2006), wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue14-contents. htm.
19. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," 15.
20. Arnaldo Cruz-Malavé and Martin F. Manalansan IV, "Introduction: Dissident Sexualities/Alternative Globalisms," in Queer Globalizations: Citizenship and the Afterlife of Colonialism, ed. Arnaldo Cruz-Malavé and Martin F. Manalansan IV (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 1.
21. "Let Them Wed," Economist, January 6, 1996, 84
22. (cited in Altman, "On Global Queering").
23. Ara Wilson, "Queering Asia," Intersections: Gender, History, and Culture in the Asian Context, no.14 (November 2006), intersections.anu.edu. au/issue14/wilson.html (accessed August 27, 2008).
24. Adam, Duyvendak, and Krouwel, "Gay and Lesbian Movements," 344, 348.
25. Jeffrey Weeks, The World We Have Won: The Remaking of Erotic and Intimate Life (London: Routledge, 2007), 219.
26. Weeks, World We Have Won, 218.
27. See Peter A. Jackson, Male Homosexuality in Thailand - an Interpretation of Contemporary Thai Sources (New York: Global Academic, 1989);
28. Rosalind Morris, "Three Sexes and Four Sexualities: Redressing the Discourses on Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Thailand," positions 2, no.1 (1994): 15 - 43;
29. J. Neil Garcia, Philippine Gay Culture, the Last Thirty Years: Binabai to Bakla, Silahis to MSM (Diliman: University of the Philippines Press, 1996);
30. Megan Sinnott, "Masculinity and Tom Identity in Thailand," in Lady Boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys: Male and Female Homosexualities in Contemporary Thailand, ed. Peter Jackson and Gerard Sullivan (New York: Haworth, 1999), 97 - 119;
31. Mark McLelland, Male Homosexuality in Modern Japan: Cultural Myths and Social Realities (Richmond: Curzon, 2000);
32. Peter A. Jackson, "Gay Adaptation, Tom-Dee Resistance, and Kathoey Indifference: Thailand's Gender/ Sex Minorities and the Episodic Allure of Queer English," in Speaking in Queer Tongues: Globalisation and Gay Desire, ed. William L. Leap and Tom Boellstorff (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 202 - 30;
33. Fran Martin, Situating Sexualities: Queer Representation in Taiwanese Fiction, Film, and Public Culture (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004);
34. Megan Sinnott, Toms and Dees: Transgender Identity and Female Same-Sex Relationships in Thailand (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2004);
35. LeeRay M. Costa and Andrew Matzner, Male Bodies, Women's Souls: Personal Narratives of Thailand's Transgendered Youth (New York: Haworth, 2007);
36. Sharyn Graham Davies, Challenging Gender Norms: Five Genders among the Bugis in Indonesia (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007).
37. Benigno Sánchez-Eppeler and Cindy Patton, "Introduction: With a Passport out of Eden," in Queer Diasporas, ed. Benigno Sánchez-Eppeler and Cindy Patton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 3.
38. Tom Boellstorff, A Coincidence of Desires: Anthropology, Queer Studies, Indonesia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 198.
39. Boellstorff, Coincidence of Desires, 198, 199.
40. Fran Martin, Peter Jackson, Mark McLelland, and Audrey Yue, AsiaPacifiQueer: Rethinking Gender and Sexuality in the Asia-Pacific (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
41. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 17, emphasis in original.
42. Jackson, Male Homosexuality in Thailand.
43. See Peter A. Jackson, "Performative Genders, Perverse Desires: A Bio-History of Thailand's Same-Sex and Transgender Cultures," Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, no.9 (2003), intersections.anu.edu.au/issue9/jackson.html.
44. Boellstorff, Coincidence of Desires, 81.
45. Boellstorff cites Leonard Andaya, "The Bissu: Study of a Third Gender in Indonesia," in Other Pasts: Women, Gender, and History in Early Modern Southeast Asia, ed. Barbara W. Andaya (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2000), 27 - 46;
46. David Plummer and Doug Porter, "The Use and Abuse of Epidemiological Categories," in No Place for Borders: The HIV/AIDS Epidemic and Development in Asia and the Pacific, ed. Godfrey Linge and Doug Porter (St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1997), 43.
47. Jackson, "Performative Genders."
48. Boellstorff, Coincidence of Desires, 192.
49. Boellstorff's references here are to Garcia, Philippine Gay Culture;
50. James L. Peacock, Rites of Modernization: Symbolic and Social Aspects of Indonesian Proletarian Drama (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968);
51. Frank Proschan, "Eunuch Mandarins, Soldats Mamzelles, Effeminate Boys, and Graceless Women: French Colonial Constructions of Vietnamese Genders," GLQ 8 (2002): 435 - 67;
52. Drucker, "In the Tropics There Is No Sin."
53. Walter Irvine provides insight into the formation of today's commodified kathoey culture from fieldwork in northern Thailand in the 1970s: "Kathooi [kathoey] may be seen as successful salesmen [sic] at village or town markets where women dominate and where men are present as casual buyers. In one case, a self-made entrepreneur of poor, unlanded, peasant origin, was said to owe his prosperity to the kathooi salesmen whom he employed to distribute and sell his stock of cosmetics. The man operated in several towns of Northern, North Eastern, and Central Thailand, carrying his merchandise and his eight kathooi in the back of his van, with his wife sitting by him in the front. At each town, he would stay for several days, sending off the kathooi to the market by five in the morning with large cardboard boxes of goods. This businessman had tried to employ females as saleswomen without success, and was only able to make his sales shoot up when he decided to employ kathooi instead. He reported that their success was partly related to their hard work, but also to their entertainment value, for dressed up and made up as women, the young kathooi looked, he said, better than most women, thus providing unbeatable advertisements for his products, while attracting clients by the very fact of being kathooi, and their ability to ape the dabble of women and entertain. However, when off the job, and although enjoying their work and success, individual members of this group of salesmen spoke of the stigma attached to the kathooi role. Some put particular stress on the subordinate and derided identity which was given to them in their own villages and even in their families, this attitude explaining the fact that many called at their villages as seldom as possible, perhaps only at New Years, when they honour their parents by performing the dam huua ritual. It can be concluded that these men, who were excluded except as clown-like figures from their village communities, had found an alternative grouping with others like themselves. Within the bounds of this grouping, stigma could be kept at bay and outside it could also be transformed by means of their acting skills into the basis for a kind of success" ("The Thai-Yuan 'Madman,' and the Modernising, Developing Thai Nation as Bounded Entities under Threat: A Study in the Replication of a Single Image" [PhD diss., University of London, 1982], 476n,
54. cited in Matzner, "Transgenderism and Northern Thai Spirit Mediumship," web.hku.hk/~sjwinter/TransgenderASIA/TGinThailandSpirit.htm [accessed September 10, 2007]).
55. Altman, "Rupture or Continuity?" 87.
56. Altman, Global Sex, 157.
57. J. K. Gibson-Graham, The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1996).
58. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, "Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri Interviewed by Nicholas Brown and Imre Szeman, The Global Coliseum: On Empire," Cultural Studies 16, no.2 (2002): 177-192
59. Tom Boellstorff, The Gay Archipelago: Sexuality and Nation in Indonesia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 219.
60. Boellstorff, Gay Archipelago, 216.
61. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
62. Jackson, "Explosion of Thai Identities."
63. Jackson, Male Homosexuality in Thailand.
64. See, for example, Dominic Sachsenmaier, Jens Riedel, and Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, eds., Reflections on Multiple Modernities: European, Chinese, and Other Interpretations (Boston: Brill, 2002);
65. Jenny Kwok Wah Lau, ed., Multiple Modernities: Cinemas and Popular Media in Transcultural Asia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003).
66. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," 15;
67. Altman, Global Sex, 86.
68. Jackson, "Gay Adaptation, Tom-Dee Resistance, and Kathoey Indifference."
69. I wish to thank the reader who emphasized the gendering of capitalism when commenting on an earlier version of this essay.
70. Ara Wilson, The Intimate Economies of Bangkok: Tomboys, Tycoons, and Avon Ladies in the Global City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
71. Peter A. Jackson, "An American Death in Bangkok: The Murder of Darrell Berrigan and the Hybrid Origins of Gay Identity in 1960s Bangkok," GLQ 5 (1999): 361-411.
72. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Makings of the Gay Male World, 1890 - 1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 13.
73. Chauncey, Gay New York, 13.
74. See Jackson, "American Death in Bangkok";
75. Jackson, "Explosion of Thai Identities."
76. Wilson, "Queering Asia."
77. The country was called Siam until 1939, when the name was changed to Thailand.
78. For accounts of the modern history of male homosexuality in Japan, see Gregory M. Pflugfelder, Cartographies of Desire: Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600 - 1950 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999);
79. McLelland, Male Homosexuality in Modern Japan;
80. Mark McLelland, Queer Japan from the Pacific War to the Internet Age (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005).
81. Tamara Loos, Subject Siam: Family, Law, and Colonial Modernity in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006).
82. See Peter A. Jackson, "The Performative State: Semicoloniality and the Tyranny of Images in Modern Thailand," Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia 19, no.2 (2004): 40 - 74;
83. Jackson, "Autonomy and Subordination in Thai History: The Case for Semicolonial Analysis," Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 8 (2007): 329-348
84. John D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, ed. Henry Abelove, Michèle Aina Barale, and David M. Halperin (New York: Routledge, 1993), 467-476
85. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities."
86. D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," 470, emphasis in original.
87. D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," 467.
88. D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," 468.
89. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," 17.
90. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," 17.
91. Wilson, Intimate Economies of Bangkok, 120.
92. Drucker, "Introduction: Remapping Sexualities," 16.
93. D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," 471.
94. Others have also pointed to the metropolitan origins of modern homosexualities. Henning Bech states, "I have pointed to the importance of the urban in the constitution of the modern homosexual - and notably, the importance of studying him as an existence of the city and not merely as someone existing in the city. . . . the urban permeates practically all dimensions of his existence. Further, I have emphasized the overall importance of spatiality, i.e. of life spaces, as a background for the homosexual form of existence" (When Men Meet: Homosexuality and Modernity, trans. Teresa Mesquit and Tim Davies [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997], 262n121, emphases in original).
95. Stephen O. Murray emphasizes the importance of the urban commercial gay scene for the emergence of gay identities: "Diversification of gay types . . . cannot occur without numbers, and the aggregation of those with gay interests only occurs in cities. . . . In large cities, at least since early in the twentieth century, there were small-scale entrepreneurs seeking to profit from those seeking same-sex sexual partners and safe spaces for socializing with like-minded others" (Homosexualities [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000], 392).
96. Chauncey, Gay New York.
97. James N. Green, Beyond Carnival: Male Homosexuality in Twentieth-Century Brazil (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 50.
98. Chauncey, Gay New York, 87.
99. Chauncey, Gay New York, 96.
100. In Asia commercial male homoerotic magazines appeared first in Japan in the 1950s (see McLelland, Queer Japan), followed by Thailand a couple of decades later. Local gay magazines are now widespread in Taiwan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, and Indonesia, but in these former colonies gay publishing began some years after the first commercial gay magazines appeared in noncolonized Japan and Thailand.
101. Chaiwat is a pseudonym.
102. Mithuna is the Thai name of the astrological sign Gemini, whose symbol is "The Twins." Chaiwat chose this name for the magazine because, to his mind, symbolic representations of "The Twins" had homoerotic resonances and because the word mithuna sounds similar to a formal Thai term for sexual intercourse, methun. Mithuna and methun are in fact derived from the same Sanskrit source.
103. I have described the history of Uncle Go's column in detail in Dear Uncle Go.
104. Weeks, World We Have Won, 210.
105. Altman, Global Sex, 12.
106. Loos, Subject Siam, 144.
107. Scot Barmé, Woman, Man, Bangkok: Love, Sex, and Popular Culture in Thailand (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), 81.
108. "Tang sorng sopheni theuan yang witthan doi chai dek-chai pen phu-rap-jang kratham chamrao" ("Degenerate Illegal Brothel Set Up, Uses Boys as Employees to Perform Illicit Sex"), Srikrung, June 20, 1935 (BE 2478).
109. This item was reprinted in Piyakanit Hongthong, Siam Sanuk Khao (Amusing Stories from the Siamese News) (Bangkok: Samnak-phim Kanya, 1988 [BE 2531]), 146-147 Note: Thailand uses the Buddhist Era (BE) calendar, which begins in 543 BCE. Publication dates for Thai books and newspapers are here provided first in the equivalent Common Era (CE) year, followed by the BE year in parentheses.
110. "Tamruat thamlai sorng bamrer seung chai dek-chai thaen ying khanat 14 kwa 15 yorn jao samnak kor dek num" ("Police Destroy Brothel That Uses Fourteen- and Fifteen-Year-Old Boys instead of Women: Owner Is Himself a Youth"), Prachachat, June 20, 1935 (BE 2478).
111. Penny Van Esterik, Materializing Thailand (Oxford: Berg, 2000), 174.
112. Phrommet, Phoey chiwit dao kathoey yort kari: Poet prawat chiwit phajonphai khorng krathoey (Revealing the Life of a Star Kathoey and Top-Notch Whore: Revealing the Adventurous Life History of a Krathoey) (Bangkok: Odeon/Chaiyan Khehathat, 1951 [BE 2492]). (Note: kathoey and krathoey are variant spellings of the same term). Phrommet is the Thai rendering of the Sanskrit brahmesvara, "the Lord Brahma." The significance of the editor taking the name of a Hindu deity is not clear. Thanks to Scot Barmé for bringing this rare source to my attention.
113. While doing fieldwork in Bangkok in the mid-1990s for his PhD on Thai social history under my academic supervision (published as Barmé, Woman, Man, Bangkok), Scot came across this booklet in the collection of a secondhand book dealer. The collector valued the pamphlet highly and unfortunately refused to either sell it or permit it to be photocopied in total. However, he did let Scot photocopy the cover and to transcribe manually notes from the text. The account here is my translation of Scot's handwritten notes in Thai summarizing the pamphlet's contents.
114. This 1951 text uses the borrowed English term faen ("fan") to mean a regular sexual partner.
115. At places Peo is called phor yort krathoey, "a male acme of kathoey [beauty]." Phor, literally "father," is also an affectionate title used before the names of males who are younger than the speaker. The use of phor suggests that while Peo was regarded as being a kathoey, he may not have cross-dressed in everyday life. If Peo had lived as a woman, it is probable that Phrommet would have used a feminine title such as mae ("mother"), nang-sao ("Miss"), or nang ("Mrs.") to describe him. Perhaps if Peo had been born forty years later he would have been called gay or a gay queen rather than a kathoey. Significantly, Peo's male partners are not called kathoey but labeled as sadeu or occasionally dao sadeu, literally "star navel," but here meaning "a star [at having a good time below] the navel." The use of the masculine term phor to qualify Peo's status as a kathoey also shows that this term covered a range of different types of homosexual men, with qualifying gender terms to distinguish different types of kathoey. My research on the Thai press of the early 1960s (see Jackson, "American Death in Bangkok"), a decade after the publication of Peo's biography, shows that before the emergence of the label gay and its differentiation from the effeminate, cross-dressing kathoey in the mid-1960s, there was already a popular awareness in Bangkok of differentiations within the category of kathoey, and various linguistic strategies were used to mark these differences. Given the rich variety of Thai gender terms, including titles, pronouns, and sentence particles, and the Thai flair for playful and poetic uses of language, speakers were able to convey detailed gender nuances depending on how feminine or masculine a particular kathoey was perceived to be.
116. Here tom thua dam ("to boil black beans") describes the sexual behavior of a man who lets other men penetrate him. This source indicates the extent to which Karun's nickname, Thua Dam, had become a popular idiom for anal sex between men by the early 1950s.
117. Chauncey, Gay New York, 18n.
118. Fellatio is not the only novel activity to be added to the repertoire of modern Thai sexual practices. Kissing, called jup pak ("mouth kissing") or usually simply jup, is another recently introduced sexual activity. Until the modern period, Thai sexual partners did not kiss but placed cheek (kaem) against cheek and sniffed (horm), a sexual practice called horm kaem or simply horm. Even today, some Thai couples do not kiss. Jup, the word now used to refer to lip kissing, also originally meant "cheek sniffing." In his popular Thai-language dictionary, Manit Manitcharoen's first definition of jup is "to sniff" (sut dom), and in addition to the contemporary idiom jup pak, "lip kissing," he also lists jup kaem, defined as "to place one's nose against another's cheek (kaem) and sniff (sut dom)" (Manit Manitcharoen, Photjananukrom Thai [Thai Dictionary] [Bangkok: Ruamsan, 1983 (BE 2526)], 267). Manit defines horm as "to sniff an aroma" and lists jup as a synonym. The late Khukrit Pramoj, a prime minister in the 1970s as well as an author and journalist well known for his witticisms, reflected many older Thais' dismissive attitudes toward the newfangled practice of lip kissing when he satirically defined jup as "to sniff (sut dom) [a lover's] cheek, but which now seems to be old hat.
119. Nowadays we have to suck each other's mouths to be satisfied" (Khukrit Pramoj, Photjananukrom Chabap Khukrit [The Khukrit Edition Dictionary] [Bangkok: Samnak-phim Siam Rath, 1996 (BE 2539)], 37). The recentness of lip kissing as an erotic practice provides further evidence that the mouth has become an erogenous zone in Thailand only in modern times.
120. See Matt Cook, Robert Mills, Randolph Trumbach, and H. G. Cocks, A Gay History of Britain: Love and Sex between Men since the Middle Ages (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007).
121. See Cook et al., Gay History of Britain.
122. "Phoey laeng 'phu-chai khai tua', mi dara nr. nork 'hun di' 'borikan' phu-ying arom pliaw" ("Den of Men Who Sell Themselves Exposed, Well-Built Stars and Overseas Graduates 'Service' Wild-Mooded Women"), Thai Rath, June 17, 1974.
123. "Phoey laeng 'phu-chai khai tua.' "
124. Santi Sawetwimon, "Sopheni mi nuat" ("Prostitutes with Moustaches"), Thai Rath, June 23, 1974.
125. Sawetwimon, "Sopheni mi nuat."
126. Thai Rath, September 3, 1974. This film was produced by Adul Green, scripted by Raphiphorn, and starred Sombat Methanee and Aranya Phusit in the male and female leads, respectively.
127. For details on the public controversy surrounding this and another 1974 film on male sex work, The Male Prostitutes (Phu-chai khai tua),
128. see Peter A. Jackson, "Offending Images: Gender and Sexual Minorities, and State Control of the Media in Thailand," in Media Fortunes, Changing Times: ASEAN States in Transition, ed. Russell H. K. Heng (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2002), 201-230