"Who's winning the human race?" Cold war as pharmaceutical political strategy

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 64, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 429-473

  Tobbell, Dominique A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cold war; Drug industry; Drug regulation; Food and Drug Administration; Industry academic relations; Pharmaceuticals

Indexed keywords

DRUG;

ARTICLE; DRUG COST; DRUG INDUSTRY; ECONOMICS; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HISTORY; HUMAN; IDEOLOGY; LEGAL ASPECT; PATENT; POLITICAL SYSTEM; POLITICS; UNITED STATES; USSR;

COMMUNISM; DEMOCRACY; DRUG COSTS; DRUG INDUSTRY; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HEALTH CARE REFORM; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; PATENTS AS TOPIC; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; POLITICS; UNITED STATES; USSR;

EID: 70350095900     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: 14684373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/jrp012     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. John T. Connor, "1959: The Year the Public Comes to Call," address delivered at the mid-winter luncheon of the Drug, Chemical, and Allied Trade Section of the New York Board of Trade, New York City, 29 January 1959, Merck Archives, Whitehouse Station, NJ.
2. On the history of U.S. drug regulation, see Charles O. Jackson, Food and Drug Legislation in the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970)
3. Peter Temin, Taking Your Medicine: Drug Regulation in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980)
4. James Harvey Young, Pure Food: Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989)
5. Harry M. Marks, "Revisiting 'The Origins of Compulsory Drug Prescriptions,'" Am. J. Public Health, 1995, 85, 109-I6.
6. The only full-length, scholarly account of the Kefauver hearings is Richard E. McFadyen, "Estes Kefauver and the Drug Industry" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1973). For contemporary accounts of the hearings
7. see Richard Harris, The Real Voice (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964)
8. Morton Mintz, The Therapeutic Nightmare: A Report the Roles of the United States Food and Drug Administration, the American Medical Association, Pharmaceutical Manufacturers, and Others in Connection with the Irrational and Massive Use of Prescription Drugs that May Be Worthless, Injurious, or even Lethal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965)
9. For more limited analysis of the hearings, see Joseph B. Gorman, Kefauver: A Political History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 298-313
10. Temin, Taking Your Medicine
11. Philip J. Hilts, Protecting America's Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 129-165
12. Arthur Daemmrich, Pharmacopolitics: Drug Regulation in the United States and Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 24-30
13. Robert Bud, "Antibiotics, Big Business, and Consumers: The Context of Government Investigations into the Postwar American Drug Industry," Technol. Cult., 2005, 46, 329-349
14. Daniel Scroop has also briefly analyzed Kefauver's administered price hearings, arguing that the hearings not only shared continuities in pre-New Deal approaches to antitrust but also served as the origins of modern consumer politics. See Daniel Scroop, "A Faded Passion? Estes Kefauver and the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly," Bus. Econ. Hist. On-Line, 2007, 5, available at: http://www.h-net.org/∼business/bhcweb/ publications/BEHonline/beh.html.
15. McFadyen, Estes Kefauver and the Drug Industry; Gorman, Kefauver, 298-313
16. Hilts, Protecting America s Health, 129-165; Temin Taking Your Medicine
17. Mintz, The Therapeutic Nightmare; Harris, The Real Voice
18. An exception in examining the cold war connection is Jeremy A. Greene, Prescribing by Numbers: Drugs and the Definition of Disease (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 45-47.
19. Among recent scholarship on the pharmaceutical industry, the only work to deal with the Kefauver hearings at any length is Bud, "Antibiotics, Big Business, and Consumers."
20. See also, Daemmrich, Pharmacopolitics, 24-30
21. Greene, Prescribing by Numbers, 45-47
22. and Nicolas Rasmussen, On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 205-208
23. Industry sources consulted include the archives of Sterling Drug Inc., Merck & Co., and Parke, Davis & Co. See Sterling Drug Inc. Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington, DC; Merck & Co., Merck Archives, Whitehouse Station, NJ; and Parke-Davis Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Washington, DC.
24. Austin Smith, "Remarks of Austin Smith, M.D. (president elect)" in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1959-1960 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1960), 39.
25. Austin Smith, Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book 1959-1960, Ibid., 19.
26. William Graham, "Address of the Chairman of the Board," in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, Year Book 1960-1961 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1961 ), 6.
27. William Graham, Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, Year Book 1960-1961 . Ibid., 5-6.
28. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 253.
29. Colin Gordon, Dead on Arrival: The Politics of Health Care in Twentieth Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003 ), 144.
30. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Health United States 1975, DHEW Publication No. (HRA) 76-1232, 11-16.
31. Health United States 1975, Ibid., 72-73 . All annual price index values calculated from constant dollars.
32. In1956, the House Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Relations chaired by Representative Lawrence H. Fountain (D-NC) had investigated allegations of price-fixing among several polio vaccine manufacturers, and between 1956 and 1958, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) investigated allegations of price-fixing among antibiotics manufacturers.
33. Nancy Tomes, "Merchants of Health: Medicine and Consumer Culture in the United States, 1900-1940," J. Am. Hist., 2001, 88, 519-547
34. Bud, "Antibiotics, Big Business, and Consumers;" Harris, The Real Voice, 1 -49.
35. Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, Committee of the Judiciary, United States Senate, Administered Prices, Drugs. Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 48.
36. For a detailed description and analysis of the work of detail men in the mid- twentieth century, see Jeremy A. Greene, "Attention to 'Details': Etiquette and the Pharmaceutical Salesman in Postwar America" Soc. Stud. Sci., 2004, 34, 271-292
37. Since the 1902 Biologics Control Act, manufacturers of biologics such as vaccines and anti-sera were required to be licensed by the federal government.
38. Harris, The Real Voice, 119-123
39. Harris, The Real Voice, 119-123
40. The quotation, made by Robert S. Meyer during a press conference, was cited in the trade press following the publication of a survey of 500 scientists about where they got their information about scientific knowledge, research, and development. The survey was conducted by Meyer's firm, Herner, Meyer & Co. and commissioned by the National Institutes of Health. FDC Reports 19(45), 11 November 1957, 19.
41. Senator Hubert H. Humphrey, "The Human Approach to Foreign Relations" Congressional Record, 85th Congress, i st Session, i03 pt. 6: 8429-8432
42. Senator Hubert H. Humphrey, "The Human Approach to Foreign Relations" Congressional Record, 6: 8429-8432
43. H. W. Chadduck memorandum to Controllers Division, Tax Department, i November 1951 ,FF28 ,Box19, A. N. Richards Papers, University of Pennsylvania Archives, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (hereafter A.N. Richards Papers).
44. C. R. Addinall, "Memorandum: Merck International Fellowships" 2 February 1952,FF26 1952,i9,Box A. N. Richards Papers.
45. M. H. Trytten letter to A. N. Richards, II June 1956,FF22,Box19, A. N. Richards Papers.
46. FDC Reports 20(24), 16 June 1958, 18.
47. For a historical account of Soviet pharmaceutical research during World War II, see Mary Schaeffer Conroy, Medicines for the Soviet Masses during World War II (New York: University Press of America, 2008)
48. For the post-war period, see Mary Schaeffer Conroy, "The Soviet Pharmaceutical Industry and Dispensing, 1945-1953, Eur.-Asia Stud., 2004, 56, 963-991
49. and "The Soviet Pharmaceutical Industry, Past and Present" paper delivered at the conference Modern Medicines: New Perspectives in Pharmaceutical History, 18 October 2008, American Institute for the History of Pharmacy, Madison, Wisconsin
50. For detailed data on the nature of health care in the Soviet Union during the Cold War, see Michael Kaser, Health Care in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1976).
51. Kaser, Health Care in the Soviet Union, 12-15. Much of Kaser's comparative data are from the early 1970s, but his analysis suggests that the comparisons should be similar for the previous decades. In 1973, for example, the Soviet Union had 27.9 physicians per 10,000 of the population; double that in the European Community (13 .9 physicians per 10, 000).
52. Of the drugs produced by the Soviet industry, many were of poor quality and produced in insufficient quantities to meet the population's health needs. As a result, throughout the cold war era, the Soviet Union suffered from severe drug shortages, which contributed to high rates of mortality and morbidity from infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria. For vital statistics for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, see Kaser, Health Care in the Soviet Union, 27-29.
53. In 1968, for example, Comecon (the economic organization of Communist states) exported $51 million or 2% of its total production of pharmaceuticals to non-Comecon countries. Kaser, Health Care in the Soviet Union, 21-22, 267-268
54. A study of the Akrikhin pharmaceutical factory cites Egypt as a recipient of Soviet pharmaceuticals, see V. K. Afanasev, K. A. Ermolina, V. N. Kadurina, L. I. Lavrenteva, and L. F. Matveeva, Zhivi, Akrikhin! (Staraia Kupavna: TOO Print, 1996).
55. Dwight D. Eisenhower, "State of the Union Address, 1958" http://www.pbs.org/ wgbh/amex/presidents/34-eisenhower/psources/ps-state58.html (accessed 20 March 2007).
56. Howard Margolis, "'Heath for Peace' Bill: It Encourages but Cannot Require the Administration to Take Action" Science, 1960, 132, 131-132
57. George A. Smathers, "Statement of Honorable George A. Smathers," Administered Prices in the Drug Industry, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly of the Committee of the Judiciary, United States Senate (hereafter Kefauver Hearings), 86th Congress, 1st Session, 7 December 1959 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), 7843.
58. John T. Connor, "Statement of John T. Connor," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 1st Session, 9 December 1959 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), 8035.
59. William B. Walsh, "Testimony of Dr. William B. Walsh," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 2nd session, 20 April 1960 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), 10862-10863 .
60. For details concerning the Eisenhower Administration's decision to donate a Navy vessel to Project HOPE, see Zachary A. Cunningham, "Project HOPE as Propaganda: A Humanitarian Nongovernmental Organization Takes Part in America's Total Cold War" (MA Thesis, Ohio University, March 2008), 38-44.
61. William B. Graham, "Address of the Chairman of the Board," in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1960-1961 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1961 ), 5.
62. Walsh, "Testimony of Dr. William B. Walsh."
63. Graham, "Address of the Chairman of the Board," 5-6.
64. Alexander Wiley, "Individual Views of Senator Alexander Wiley," Administered Prices, Drugs Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 369-370
65. Alexander Wiley, Administered Prices, Drugs Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly Ibid., 370-371
66. Administered Prices, Drugs Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly Ibid., 372.
67. Edward W Boland, "Letter from Dr. Edward W Boland," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 1961. Reprinted in Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, 24 May i962 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962), See also similar testimony provided by Dr. Charles G. King, Dr. Richard H. Freyberg, and Dr. Roger Adams
68. Philip Hench, "Statement of Dr. Philip Hench," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, 24 May 1962 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962), 516.
69. Philip Hench, "Statement of Dr. Philip Hench," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 1962), 516.
70. Responsibility for the NRC anti-malarial research program was transferred to the Committee on Medical Research (CMR) of the OSRD in the fall of 1941. For a detailed discussion of the NRC and CMR malaria research programs, see Leo B. Slater, "Preparing for War," in War and Disease: Biomedical Research on Malaria in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009).
71. Lowell T. Coggeshall, "Testimony of Dr. Lowell T. Coggeshall," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 1961. Reprinted in Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, 24 May Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962, 819-823.
72. Lowell T. Coggeshall, "Testimony of Dr. Lowell T. Coggeshall," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 1961. 819-823.
73. Vannevar Bush, "Statement of Dr. Vannevar Bush" Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, 24 May 1962 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962), 716-717
74. See Nicolas Rasmussen, "Of 'Small Men,' Big Science, and Bigger Business: The Second World War and Biomedical Research in the United States" Minerva, 2002, 40, 115-146
75. Vannevar Bush, "S. 1552: Statement of Dr. Vannevar Bush" Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, Committee of the Judiciary of the U.S. Senate, 7 December 1961, 2198.
76. See, for example, Louis Lasagna, "Testimony of Louis Lasagna," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 1 st session, i0 December 1959 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1960), 8136-8163
77. Harry Dowling, "S. 1552: Statement of Dr. Harry Dowling," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 25 July 1961 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 409-427
78. Maxwell Finland, "S. 1552: Statement of Dr. Maxwell Finland," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 25 July 1961(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 428-457
79. and Walter Modell, "S. 1552: Statement of Dr. Walter Modell," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 20 July 1961 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 305-332
80. See, for example, "Statement of Ethel Percy Andrus, American Association of Retired Persons and National Retired Teachers Association" Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 1st Session, 12 December 1959, 8351-8356
81. "Statement of Frank J. Wilson, National Association of Retired Civil Employees," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 1st Session, 12 December 1959, 8351-56;
82. and "Statement of Mildred Brady, Consumers Union" Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, 11 May 1960, 11531-11542
83. Harry Marks makes a similar argument regarding the drug industry's efforts to secure the support of the medical profession in the controversial passage of the 1951 Durham-Humphrey Amendment of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Harry Marks, "Revisiting 'The Origins of Compulsory Drug Prescriptions.'"
84. Smith joined the AMA staff in the mid-1940s after completing his residency, and he served as editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association from 1949 to 1959. Austin Smith, "Report of the President,"
85. William S. Apple, "The Time of Our Greatest Opportunity," presented at Annual Meeting of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 4-6 April 1960,in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1960-1961 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1961, 30-31 .
86. William S. Apple, "The Time of Our Greatest Opportunity," in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1960-1961, 30-31.
87. John H. Talbott, "Editorial: New Drive for Compulsory Health Insurance," J. Am. Med. Assoc., i960, 172, 344-345
88. Larson's speech was presented at the PMA's Medical Section Meeting on 3 March i962. Leonard W. Larson, "Mutual Problems of the A.M.A. and P.M.A," in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Yearbook, 1962-1963 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1963 ), 345 (emphasis in original).
89. Leonard W. Larson, "Mutual Problems of the A.M.A. and P.M.A," in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Yearbook, 1962-1963, 346.
90. Hugh Hussey, "Statement of the American Medical Association Re: S. 1552," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 87th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962).
91. Louis S. Goodman, "S. 1552: Statement of Louis S. Goodman," Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 18 July 1961 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 217
92. For a detailed discussion of the difficulty in assessing drug efficacy, see Louis S. Goodman, "The Problem of Drug Efficacy," in Drugs in Our Society, ed. Paul Talalay (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963), 49-67.
93. See Eugene N. Beesley, "S. 1552: Statement of Eugene N. Beesley, Chairman of the Board, PMA," Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, 1961. Reprinted in Drug Industry Antitrust Act. Antitrust Subcommittee (Subcommittee No. 5) of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, 24 May 1962 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962), 693.
94. Mintz, The Therapeutic Nightmare, 71- 75;
95. John Swann, "Sure Cure: Public Policy on Drug Efficacy before 1962," in The Inside Story of Medicines: A Symposium, ed. Gregory J. Higby and Elaine C. Stroud (Madison, WI: American Institute for the History of Pharmacy, 1997), 223-261
96. See also Daniel Carpenter's forthcoming book on the FDA, Daniel P. Carpenter, Reputation and Power: Organizational Image and Pharmaceutical Regulation at the FDA (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, forthcoming 2009).
97. Howard Margolis, "The Drug Hearings: To No One's Surprise, Kefauver and the AMA Do not Agree on What Should Be Done" Science, 1961, 134, 89-90.
98. Philip J. Hilts, Protecting America's Health: The FDA, Business, and 100 Years of Regulation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003), 117-128
99. Margolis, "The Drug Hearings."
100. On the position of the AMA, and the relationship between the AMA and PMA during the Kefauver hearings see Mintz, The Therapeutic Nightmare, 71-92.
101. Ronald L. Numbers, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978);
102. Gordon, Dead On Arrival, 136-71;
103. Marks, Revisiting 'the origins of compulsory drug prescription
104. Harris, The Real Voice, 57.
105. John W Finney, "Senate Panel Cites Mark-ups on Drugs Ranging to 7.079%" N.Y. Times, 8 December 1959, 1;
106. Joseph A. Loftus, "Big Profit Found in Tranquilizers: One 6 Times Costlier than in Paris," N.Y. Times, 22 January 1960, 14;
107. and Associated Press, "Inquiry Finds Drug Production Controlled by a Few Companies" N.Y. Times, 25 February 1960, 21 .
108. Bert C. Goss, "The Drug Industry's Public Relations," presented at Annual Meeting of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 4-6 April 1960,in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1960-1961 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1961 ), 45-51 . Emphasis in original.
109. Harry J. Loynd, "Let's Get Our Signals Straight" in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Year Book, 1961-1962 (Washington, DC: Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 1962), 223-228
110. Howell J. Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982);
111. Elizabeth A. Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).
112. Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise, 5.
113. Theodore G. Klumpp, "Medical Progress and the Pharmaceutical Industry," commencement address, 6 June 1960, University of Chattanooga, Chattanooga, Tennessee, 4, folder 04-00-03-004-0002, series 4, subgroup 3, Record Group 4, Sterling Drug, Inc. Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution (hereafter, Sterling Drug Collection). The PMA's chairman, Eugene Beesley, mobilized similar data in his testimony against S. 1552: "More than 4.4 million Americans living today would be dead if the Nation's mortality rate had rat the 1937 level. Since 1944 the death rate from influenza has dropped 90 percent; the rate from tuberculosis, 83 percent; acute rheumatic fever, 83 percent; syphilis, 79 percent. Since 1940 the death rate among mothers in childbirth has declined by over 90 percent." Beesley, "S. 1552: Statement of Eugene Beesley," 1961 , 691 .
114. Theodore G. Klumpp, "Medical Progress and the Pharmaceutical Industry," 1960, 7-8.
115. Theodore G. Klumpp, "Medical Progress and the Pharmaceutical Industry," 1960, 10-11.
116. Theodore G. Klumpp, "Medical Progress and the Pharmaceutical Industry," 1960, 6-7. 13-14.
117. Tomes, "Merchants of Health."
118. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 165-66.
119. Arthur Kemp and Walter R. Livingston, "Medical Care Costs in an Extended Inflation. A Discussion of the Development of the Voluntary Insurance Mechanism, the Medical Care Price Index, Inter-Relationship of Price Indexes and Quality Changes, and the Real Cost of Medical Care," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1960, 174, 1209-1215
120. Anon., "Industries Drug Men Bet on Bolder, Deeper Research" Bus. Week, 9 January 1960, 1584, 90-98.
121. Anon., "Industries Drug Men Bet on Bolder, Deeper Research" Bus. Week, 1960, 1584, 90-98.
122. Anon., "Industries Drug Men Bet on Bolder, Deeper Research" Bus. Week, 1960, 1584, 90-98.
123. Harry F Dowling, "Some Observations on Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry in the United States" paper delivered in Montreal, Canada, January 1962, Folder: Talks date?, Box 3,MSC 372, Harry Dowling Papers, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland.
124. Austin Smith, "Statement of Austin Smith" Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 2nd session, 23 February 1960 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 10676.
125. Administered Prices, Drugs. Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 30.
126. Administered Prices, Drugs. Report of the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, Ibid., 664, 10554.
127. See also, "Statement of Dr. A. Dale Console," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, 13 April 1960, 10367-92;
128. and "Statement of Dr. Frederick Meyers," Kefauver Hearings, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, 13 April 1960, 10392-10413 .
129. Dowling, "Some Observations."
130. "Statement of Dr. Frederick Meyers," 10397.
131. Pharmaceutical Industry Advertising Program, folder 7,box 67, series 4, collection no. 59, N.W. Ayers Advertising Agency Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
132. The advertising series ran for several years after the Kefauver hearings ended, as pressure in Congress to enact more radical reform of the corporate system of drug development continued through the 1960s.
133. Pharmaceutical Industry Advertising Program.
134. Patricia Walker, ed., "Special Issue: Drug Industry," Parke, Davis Rev., 1961, 18, XTd 1961,XTbox 38, Parke, Davis Collection, NMAH.
135. "Special Issue: Drug Industry," Parke, Davis Rev., 1961, 18
136. Emphasis in original
137. Harris, The Real Voice, 144.
138. For a detailed examination of the legislative history of Kefauver's bill, and the administration's co-optation of that bill, see Harris, The Real Voice, 139-245
139. and McFadyen, Estes Kefauver and the Drug Industry.
140. For the history of the thalidomide tragedy, see Arthur Daemmrich, "A Tale of Two Experts: Thalidomide and Political Engagement in the United States and West Germany," Soc. Hist. Med., 2002, 15, 137-158
141. See Jackson, Food and Drug Legislation in the New Deal;
142. Temin, Taking Your Medicine;
143. Young, Pure Food
144. and Marks, "Revisiting 'The Origins of Compulsory Drug Prescriptions.'"