The Etiology of Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures: Toward a Biopsychosocial Model

Neurologic Clinics

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 909-924

  Reuber, Markus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Conversion; Dissociation; Epilepsy; Etiology; Pseudoseizures; Psychogenic non epileptic seizures

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; ETIRACETAM; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PREDNISOLONE; PYRIDOSTIGMINE;

ADULT; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; BRAIN SURGERY; CASE REPORT; CHILD NEGLECT; CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; MALE; MENTAL DISEASE; MYASTHENIA; NEUROPATHOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOGENIC NON EPILEPTIC SEIZURE; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL ISOLATION; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; EPILEPSY; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; SEIZURES;

EID: 70350077821     PISSN: 07338619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ncl.2009.06.004     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Angus-Leppan H. Diagnosing epilepsy in neurology clinics: a prospective study. Seizure 17 5 (2008) 431-436
2. Kotsopoulos I.A., de Krom M.C., Kessels F.G., et al. The diagnosis of epileptic and non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res 57 1 (2003) 59-67
3. LaFrance Jr. W.C., Rusch M.D., and Machan J.T. What is "treatment as usual" for non-epileptic seizures?. Epilepsy Behav 12 3 (2008) 388-394
4. Reuber M. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: answers and questions. Epilepsy Behav 12 (2008) 622-635
5. LaFrance Jr. W.C., Alper K., Babcock D., et al. Nonepileptic seizures treatment workshop summary. Epilepsy Behav 8 3 (2006) 451-461
6. Groppel G., Kapitany T., and Baumgartner C. Cluster analysis of clinical seizure semiology of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 41 5 (2000) 610-614
7. Reuber M., Zeidler M., Chataway J., et al. Münchausen syndrome by phone. Lancet 365 (2000) 1358
8. Benbadis S. The differential diagnosis of epilepsy: a critical review. Epilepsy Behav 15 1 (2009) 15-21
9. Reuber M., and Elger C.E. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: review and update. Epilepsy Behav 4 3 (2003) 205-216
10. Cragar D.E., Berry D.T.R., Fakhoury T.A., et al. A review of diagnostic techniques in the differential diagnosis of epileptic and nonepileptic seizures. Neuropsychol Rev 12 1 (2002) 31-64
11. Reuber M. Are non-epileptic seizures a manifestation of neurologic pathology?. In: Kanner A.M., and Schachter S. (Eds). Controversies in epilepsy and behavior (2008), Elsevier, New York 151-175
12. Reuber M., and House A.O. Treating patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Curr Opin Neurol 15 2 (2002) 207-211
13. Baker G.A., Brooks J.L., Goodfellow L., et al. Treatments for non-epileptic attack disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 (2007) CD006370
14. Reuber M., Howlett S., and Kemp S. Psychologic treatment for patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Expert Rev Neurother 5 (2005) 737-752
15. LaFrance W.C., and Barry J.J. Update on treatments of psychological nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 7 (2005) 364-374
16. LaFrance W.C., and Devinsky O. Treatment of nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 3 (2002) S19-S23
17. Jaffee S.R., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., et al. Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: a cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse Negl 31 3 (2007) 231-253
18. Kendler K.S., Aggen S.H., Czajkowski N., et al. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for DSM-IV personality disorders: a multivariate twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65 12 (2008) 1438-1446
19. Kendler K.S., Gardner C.O., and Lichtenstein P. A developmental twin study of symptoms of anxiety and depression: evidence for genetic innovation and attenuation. Psychol Med 38 11 (2008) 1567-1575
20. Lesser R.P. Psychogenic seizures. Neurology 46 6 (1996) 1499-1507
21. Chodoff P. Hysteria and women. Am J Psychiatry 139 5 (1982) 545-551
22. Selkirk M., Duncan R., Oto M., et al. Clinical differences between patients with nonepileptic seizures who report antecedent sexual abuse and those who do not. Epilepsia 49 8 (2008) 1446-1450
23. Rosenbaum M. Psychogenic seizures-why women?. Psychosomatics 41 2 (2000) 147-149
24. Ford C. Somatization and non-epileptic seizures. In: Gates J.R., and Rowan A.J. (Eds). Non-epileptic seizures. 1st edition (1993), Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston 153-164
25. Freud S., and Breuer J. Studien über Hysterie. Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke (1895) [in German]
26. Alper K., Devinsky O., Perrine K., et al. Nonepileptic seizures and childhood sexual and physical abuse. Neurology 43 10 (1993) 1950-1953
27. Duncan R., and Oto M. Predictors of antecedent factors in psychogenic nonepileptic attacks: multivariate analysis. Neurology 71 13 (2008) 1000-1005
28. Sharpe D., and Faye C. Non-epileptic seizures and child sexual abuse: a critical review of the literature. Clin Psychol Rev 26 (2006) 1020-1040
29. Kooiman C.G., van Rees Vellinga S., Spinhoven P., et al. Childhood adversities as risk factors for alexithymia and other aspects of affect dysregulation in adulthood. Psychother Psychosom 73 2 (2004) 107-116
30. Holman N., Kirby A., Duncan S., et al. Adult attachment style and childhood interpersonal trauma in non-epileptic attack disorder. Epilepsy Res 79 1 (2008) 84-89
31. Salmon P., Al-Marzooqi S.M., Baker G., et al. Childhood family dysfunction and associated abuse in patients with nonepileptic seizures: towards a causal model. Psychosom Med 65 (2003) 695-700
32. Bewley J., Murphy P.N., Mallows J., et al. Does alexithymia differentiate between patients with nonepileptic seizures, patients with epilepsy and nonpatient controls?. Epilepsy Behav 7 3 (2005) 1165-1173
33. Joukamaa M., Luutonen S., von R.H., et al. Alexithymia and childhood abuse among patients attending primary and psychiatric care: results of the RADEP Study. Psychosomatics 49 4 (2008) 317-325
34. Briere J., and Rickards S. Self-awareness, affect regulation, and relatedness: differential sequels of childhood versus adult victimization experiences. J Nerv Ment Dis 195 6 (2007) 497-503
35. Cragar D.E., Berry D.T.R., Schmitt F.A., et al. Cluster analysis of normal personality traits in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 6 (2005) 593-600
36. Reuber M., Pukrop R., Derfuss R., et al. Multidimensional assessment of personality in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. J Neurology Neurosurg Psychiatry 75 (2003) 743-748
37. Lacey C., Cook M., and Salzberg M. The neurologist, psychogenic nonepileptic seizures, and borderline personality disorder. Epilepsy Behav 11 4 (2007) 492-498
38. Galimberti C.A., Ratti M.T., Murelli R., et al. Patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures, alone or epilepsy associated, share a psychological profile distinct of epilepsy patients. J Neurology 250 3 (2003) 338-346
39. Bakvis P., Roelofs K., Kuyk J., et al. Trauma, stress and preconscious threat processing in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 50 5 (2009) 1001-1011
40. Reuber M., Fernández G., Helmstaedter C., et al. Evidence of brain abnormality in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 3 (2002) 246-248
41. Reuber M., Fernández G., Bauer J., et al. Interictal EEG abnormalities in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 1013-1020
42. Devinsky O., Mesad S., and Alper K. Nondominant hemisphere lesions and conversion nonepileptic seizures. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 13 3 (2001) 367-373
43. Reuber M., Fernández G., Helmstaedter C., et al. Are there physical risk factors for psychogenic nonepileptic seizures in patients with epilepsy?. Seizure 12 (2003) 561-567
44. Rabe F. Die Kombination hysterischer und epileptischer Anfälle-das Problem der 'Hysteroepilepsy' in neuer Sicht (1970), Springer, Berlin [in German]
45. Sirven J.I., and Glosser D.S. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 11 4 (1998) 225-235
46. Bautista R.E., Gonzales-Salazar W., and Ochoa J.G. Expanding the theory of symptom modeling in patents with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 13 2 (2008) 407-409
47. Stewart R.S., Lovitt R., and Stewart R.M. Are hysterical seizures more than hysteria? A research diagnostic criteria, DMS-III, and psychometric analysis. Am J Psychiatry 139 7 (1982) 926-929
48. Binzer M., Stone J., and Sharpe M. Recent onset pseudoseizures-clues to aetiology. Seizure 13 3 (2004) 146-155
49. Bowman E.S., and Markand O.N. The contribution of life events to pseudoseizure occurrence in adults. Bull Menninger Clin 63 1 (1999) 70-88
50. Reuber M., Howlett S., Khan A., et al. Non-epileptic seizures and other functional neurological symptoms: predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors. Psychosomatics 48 (2007) 230-238
51. Bowman E.S. Etiology and clinical course of pseudoseizures. Relationship to trauma, depression, and dissociation. Psychosomatics 34 4 (1993) 333-342
52. Cartmill A., and Betts T. Seizure behaviour in a patient with post-traumatic stress disorder following rape. Notes on the aetiology of "pseudoseizures". Seizure 1 (1992) 33-36
53. Bowman E.S., and Markand O.N. Psychodynamics and psychiatric diagnoses of pseudoseizure subjects. Am J Psychiatry 153 1 (1996) 57-63
54. Griffith J.L., Polles A., and Griffith M.E. Pseudoseizures, families, and unspeakable dilemmas. Psychosomatics 39 2 (1998) 144-153
55. Gardner D.L., and Goldberg R.L. Psychogenic seizures and loss. Int J Psychiatry Med 12 2 (1982) 121-128
56. Miller H.R. Psychogenic seizures treated by hypnosis. Am J Clin Hypn 25 4 (1983) 248-252
57. Ward P.E., McCarthy D.J., and Nyman G.W. Podiatric implications of psychogenic seizures. J Foot Surg 27 (1988) 222-225
58. Watson N.F., Doherty M.J., Dodrill C.B., et al. The experience of earthquakes by patients with epileptic and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 317-320
59. Guberman A. Psychogenic pseudoseizures in non-epileptic patients. Can J Psychiatry 27 5 (1982) 401-404
60. Oto M., Conway P., McGonigal A., et al. Gender differences in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure 14 (2005) 33-39
61. Duncan R., Oto M., Martin E., et al. Late onset psychogenic nonepileptic attacks. Neurology 66 11 (2006) 1644-1647
62. Stone J., Sharpe M., and Binzer M. Motor conversion symptoms and pseudoseizures: a comparison of clinical characteristics. Psychosomatics 45 6 (2004) 492-499
63. Tojek T.M., Lumley M., Barkley G., et al. Stress and other psychosocial characteristics of patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Psychosomatics 41 3 (2000) 221-226
64. Frances P.L., Baker G.A., and Appleton P.L. Stress and avoidance in pseudoseizures: testing the assumptions. Epilepsy Res 34 2-3 (1999) 241-249
65. Fiszman A., Alves-Leon S.V., Nunes R.G., et al. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a critical review. Epilepsy Behav 5 (2004) 818-825
66. Glosser G., Roberts D., and Glosser D.S. Nonepileptic seizures after resective epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia 40 12 (1999) 1750-1754
67. Reuber M., Kurthen M., Kral T., et al. New-onset psychogenic seizures after intracranial neurosurgery. Acta Neurochir 144 (2002) 901-908
68. Davies K.G., Blumer D.P., Lobo S., et al. De novo nonepileptic seizures after intracranial surgery for epilepsy: incidence and risk factors. Epilepsy Behav 1 (2000) 436-443
69. Ney G.C., Barr W.B., Napolitano C., et al. New-onset psychogenic seizures after surgery for epilepsy. Arch Neurol 55 5 (1998) 726-730
70. Kalogjera-Sackellares D., and Sackellares J.C. Impaired motor function in patients with psychogenic pseudoseizures. Epilepsia 42 12 (2001) 1600-1606
71. Westbrook L.E., Devinsky O., and Geocadin R. Nonepileptic seizures after head injury. Epilepsia 39 9 (1998) 978-982
72. Barry E., Krumholz A., Bergey G.K., et al. Nonepileptic posttraumatic seizures. Epilepsia 39 4 (1998) 427-431
73. Hudak A.M., Trivedi K., Harper C.R., et al. Evaluation of seizure-like episodes in survivors of moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 19 4 (2004) 290-295
74. Niedermeyer E., Blumer D., Holscher E., et al. Classical hysterical seizures facilitated by anticonvulsant toxicity. Psychiatr Clin (Basel) 3 2 (1970) 71-84
75. Howlett S., and Reuber M. An augmented model of brief psychodynamic interpersonal therapy for patients with nonepileptic seizures. Psychother Theory Res Pract Train 46 1 (2009) 125-138
76. Lichter I., Goldstein L.H., Toone B.K., et al. Nonepileptic seizures following general anaesthetics: a report of five cases. Epilepsy Behav 5 6 (2004) 1005-1013
77. Reuber M., Enright S.M., and Goulding P.J. Postoperative pseudostatus: not everything that shakes is epilepsy. Anaesthesia 55 1 (2000) 74-78
78. Parry T., and Hirsch N. Psychogenic seizures after general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 47 6 (1992) 534
79. Devinsky O., and Gordon E. Epileptic seizures progressing into nonepileptic conversion seizures. Neurology 51 5 (1998) 1293-1296
80. Orbach D., Ritaccio A., and Devinsky O. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures associated with video-EEG confirmed sleep. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 64-68
81. Goldstein L.H., and Mellers J.D. Ictal symptoms of anxiety, avoidance behaviour, and dissociation in patients with dissociative seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77 5 (2006) 616-621
82. Hixson J.D., Balcer L.J., Glosser G., et al. Fear sensitivity and the psychological profile of patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 9 4 (2006) 587-592
83. Benbadis S.R., and Chichkova R. Psychogenic pseudosyncope: an underestimated and provable diagnosis. Epilepsy Behav 9 1 (2006) 106-110
84. Zaidi A., Crampton S., Clough P., et al. Head-up tilting is a useful test for psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Seizure 8 (1999) 353-355
85. Blumer D., and Adamolekun B. Treatment of patients with coexisting epileptic and nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 9 3 (2006) 498-502
86. Stone J., Binzer M., and Sharpe M. Illness beliefs and locus of control: a comparison of patients with pseudoseizures and epilepsy. J Psychosom Res 57 6 (2004) 541-547
87. Goldstein L.H., Drew C., Mellers J., et al. Dissociation, hypnotizability, coping styles and health locus of control: characteristics of pseudoseizure patients. Seizure 9 5 (2000) 314-322
88. Howlett S., Grünewald R., Khan A., et al. Engagement in psychological treatment for functional neurological symptoms - barriers and solutions. Psychother Theory Res Pract Train 44 3 (2007) 354-360
89. Plug L., and Reuber M. Making the diagnosis in patients with blackouts: it's all in the history. Pract Neurol 9 1 (2009) 4-15
90. Schwabe M., Reuber M., Schöndienst M., et al. Listening to people with seizures: how can conversation analysis help in the differential diagnosis of seizure disorders?. Commun Med 5 1 (2008) 59-72
91. Plug L., and Reuber M. Conversation analysis can help in the differential diagnosis of patients with seizures: a case comparison. Seizure 18 (2009) 43-50
92. Schwabe M., Howell S.J., and Reuber M. Differential diagnosis of seizure disorders: a conversation analytic approach. Soc Sci Med 65 4 (2007) 712-724
93. Thompson R., Isaac C.L., Rowse G., et al. What is it like to receive the diagnosis of non-epileptic seizures?. Epilepsy Behav 14 3 (2009) 508-515
94. Mokleby K., Blomhoff S., Malt U.F., et al. Psychiatric comorbidity and hostility in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures compared with somatoform disorders and healthy controls. Epilepsia 43 2 (2002) 193-198
95. Ettinger A.B., Devinsky O., Weisbrot D.M., et al. Headaches and other pain symptoms among patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure 8 7 (1999) 424-426
96. Benbadis S.R. A spell in the epilepsy clinic and a history of "chronic pain" or "fibromyalgia" independently predict a diagnosis of psychogenic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 6 2 (2005) 264-265
97. Reuber M., House A.O., Pukrop R., et al. Somatization, dissociation and psychopathology in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res 57 (2003) 159-167
98. Martin R., Bell B., Hermann B., et al. Nonepileptic seizures and their costs: the role of neuropsychology. In: Prigatano G.P., and Pliskin N.H. (Eds). Clinical neuropsychology and cost outcome research: a beginning. 1st edition (2003), Psychology Press, New York 235-258
99. Reuber M., Pukrop R., Bauer J., et al. Outcome in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: 1 to 10 year follow-up in 164 patients. Ann Neurol 53 (2003) 305-311
100. Kristensen O., and Alving J. Pseudoseizures-risk factors and prognosis. A case-control study. Acta Neurol Scand 85 3 (1992) 177-180
101. Binder L.M., Salinsky M.C., and Smith S.P. Psychological correlates of psychogenic seizures. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 16 4 (1994) 524-530
102. Benbadis S.R., O'Neill E., Tatum W.O., et al. Outcome of prolonged video-EEG monitoring at a typical referral epilepsy center. Epilepsia 45 9 (2004) 1150-1153
103. Smith D., Defalla B.A., and Chadwick D.W. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy and the management of refractory epilepsy in a specialist clinic. QJM 92 1 (1999) 15-23
104. Scheepers B., Clough P., and Pickles C. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy: findings of a population study. Seizure 7 5 (1998) 403-406
105. Howell S.J., Owen L., and Chadwick D.W. Pseudostatus epilepticus. QJM 71 266 (1989) 507-519
106. Hantke N.C., Doherty M.J., and Haltiner A.M. Medication use profiles in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 10 2 (2007) 333-335
107. Page L.A., and Wessely S. Medically unexplained symptoms: exacerbating factors in the doctor-patient encounter. J R Soc Med 96 (2003) 223-227
108. Reuber M., Fernández G., Bauer J., et al. Diagnostic delay in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Neurology 58 3 (2002) 493-495
109. Reuber M., Baker G.A., Gill R., et al. Failure to recognize psychogenic nonepileptic seizures may cause death. Neurology 62 5 (2004) 834-835
110. Gunatilake S.B., De Silva H.J., and Ranasinghe G. Twenty-seven venous cutdowns to treat pseudostatus epilepticus. Seizure 6 1 (1997) 71-72
111. Carton S., Thompson P.J., and Duncan J.S. Non-epileptic seizures: patients' understanding and reaction to the diagnosis and impact on outcome. Seizure 12 (2003) 287-294
112. Hall-Patch L, Brown R, House A, et al. Acceptability and effectiveness of a communication strategy for the diagnosis of non-epileptic attacks. Epilepsy Behav, in press.
113. Frances P.L., and Baker G.A. Non-epileptic attack disorder (NEAD): a comprehensive review. Seizure 8 (1999) 53-61
114. LaFrance Jr. W.C., Miller I.W., Ryan C.E., et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 14 4 (2009) 591-596
115. Goldstein L.H., Deale A., Mitchell-O'Malley S., et al. An evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy as a treatment for dissociative seizures. Cogn Behav Neurol 17 (2004) 41-49