Novel markers of peripheral arterial disease

Vascular Medicine

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 381-392

  Khawaja, Farhan J ^a   Kullo, Iftikhar J ^b  

^a Gonda Vascular Center   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Inflammation; Peripheral arterial disease; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

1 ALKYL 2 ACETYLGLYCEROPHOSPHOCHOLINE ESTERASE; BETA 2 MICROGLOBULIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CD40 LIGAND; D DIMER; FIBRINOGEN; HOMOCYSTEINE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPOPROTEIN; LIPOPROTEIN A; MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 155; MYELOPEROXIDASE; N(G),N(G) DIMETHYLARGININE; NEOPTERIN; OSTEOPROTEGERIN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN;

ANGIOGENESIS; ARTERY DISEASE; ARTICLE; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE MARKER; DRUG MECHANISM; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LEUKOCYTE COUNT; MONOCYTE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; THROMBOSIS;

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; LIPOPROTEINS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASES; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTORS; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 70350070858     PISSN: 1358863X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1358863X09106869     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Criqui MH. Peripheral arterial disease - epidemiological aspects. Vasc Med 2001; 6(suppl): 3-7.
2. Muller-Buhl U Wiesemann A Oser B Kirchberger I Strecker EP. Correlation of hemodynamic and functional variables with the angiographic extent of peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Vasc Med 1999; 4: 247-251.
3. Doobay AV Anand SS. Sensitivity and specificity of the ankle-brachial index to predict future cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 1463-1469.
4. McKenna M; Wolfson S; Kuller L;. The ratio of ankle and arm arterial pressure as an independent predictor of mortality. Atherosclerosis 1991; 87: 119-128.
5. Hirsch AT Haskal ZJ Hertzer NR. ACC/AHA Guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic). Circulation 2006; 113: E463-e654.
6. Feinglass J McCarthy WJ Slavensky R Manheim LM Martin GJ. Effect of lower extremity blood pressure on physical functioning in patients who have intermittent claudication. The Chicago Claudication Outcomes Research Group. J Vasc Surg 1996; 24: 503-511, discussion: 511-512.
7. McDermott MM Mehta S Liu K. Leg symptoms, the ankle-brachial index, and walking ability in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med 1999; 14: 173-181.
8. Pepys MB Hirschfield GM Tennent GA. Targeting C-reactive protein for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Nature 2006; 440: 1217-1221.
9. Calabro P Willerson JT Yeh ET. Inflammatory cytokines stimulated C-reactive protein production by human coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Circulation 2003; 108: 1930-1932.
10. Verma S Wang CH Li SH. A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis. Circulation 2002; 106: 913-919.
11. Yasojima K Schwab C McGeer EG McGeer PL. Generation of C-reactive protein and complement components in atherosclerotic plaques. Am J Pathol 2001; 158: 1039-1051.
12. Pasceri V Willerson JT Yeh ET. Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation 2000; 102: 2165-2168.
13. Pasceri V Chang J Willerson JT Yeh ET. Modulation of C-reactive protein-mediated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 induction in human endothelial cells by anti-atherosclerosis drugs. Circulation 2001; 103: 2531-2534. Erratum in: Circulation 2001; 104: 1992.
14. Zwaka TP Hombach V Torzewski J. C-reactive protein-mediated low density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages: Implications for atherosclerosis. Circulation 2001; 103: 1194-1197.
15. Szmitko PE Wang CH Weisel RD de Almeida JR Anderson TJ Verma S. New markers of inflammation and endothelial cell activation: Part I. Circulation 2003; 108: 1917-1923.
16. Wang CH Li SH Weisel RD. C-reactive protein upregulates angiotensin type 1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle. Circulation 2003; 107: 1783-1790.
17. Torzewski J Torzewski M Bowyer DE. C-reactive protein frequently colocalizes with the terminal complement complex in the intima of early atherosclerotic lesions of human coronary arteries. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 9: 1386-1392.
18. Ridker PM Cushman M Stampfer MJ Tracy RP Hennekens CH. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 973-979.
19. Albert CM Ma J Rifai N Stampfer MJ Ridker PM. Prospective study of C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and plasma lipid levels as predictors of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 2002; 105: 2595-2599.
20. Ridker PM Cushman M Stampfer MJ Tracy RP Hennekens CH. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of developing peripheral vascular disease. Circulation 1998; 97:425-428.
21. Ridker PM Stampfer MJ Rifai N. Novel risk factors for systemic atherosclerosis comparison of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homocysteine, lipoprotein(a), and standard cholesterol screening as predictors of peripheral arterial disease. JAMA 2001; 285: 2481-2485.
22. Pradhan AD Shrivastava S Cook NR Rifai N Creager MA Ridker PM. Symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in women: Nontraditional biomarkers of elevated risk. Circulation 2008; 117: 823-831.
23. Bloemenkamp DG van den Bosch MA Mali WP. Novel risk factors for peripheral arterial disease in young women. Am J Med 2002; 113: 462-467.
24. Unlu Y Karapolat S Karaca Y Kiziltunc A. Comparison of levels of inflammatory markers and hemostatic factors in the patients with and without peripheral arterial disease. Thromb Res 2006; 117: 357-364.
25. Yu HI Sheu WH Song YM Liu HC Lee WJ Chen YT. C-reactive protein and risk factors for peripheral vascular disease in subjects with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2004; 21: 336-341.
26. Langlois M Duprez D Delanghe J De Buyzere M Clement DL. Serum vitamin C concentration is low in peripheral arterial disease and is associated with inflammation and severity of atherosclerosis. Circulation 2001; 103: 1863-1868.
27. Khawaja FJ Bailey KR Turner ST Kardia SL Mosley TH Kullo IJ. Association of novel risk factors with the ankle brachial index in African American and non-Hispanic white populations. Mayo Clin Proc 2007; 82: 709-716.
28. Santos S Rooke TW McConnell JP Kullo I. Relation of markers of inflammation (C-reactive protein, white blood cell count, and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2) to the ankle-brachial index. Vasc Med 2004; 9: 171-176.
29. McDermott MM Green D Greenland P. Relation of levels of hemostatic factors and inflammatory markers to the ankle brachial index. Am J Cardiol 2003; 92: 194-199.
30. McDermott MM Guralnik JM Corsi A. Patterns of inflammation associated with peripheral arterial disease: The InCHIANTI study. Am Heart J 2005; 150: 276-281.
31. Pande RL Perlstein TS Beckman JA Creager MA. Association of insulin resistance and inflammation with peripheral arterial disease: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999 to 2004. Circulation 2008; 118: 33-41.
32. Tzoulaki I Murray GD Lee AJ Rumley A Lowe GD Fowkes FG. C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and soluble adhesion molecules as predictors of progressive peripheral atherosclerosis in the general population: Edinburgh Artery Study. Circulation 2005; 112: 976-983.
33. Rossi E Biasucci LM Citterio F. Risk of myocardial infarction and angina in patients with severe peripheral vascular disease: Predictive role of C-reactive protein. Circulation 2002; 105: 800-803.
34. Danesh J Collins R Appleby P Peto R. Association of fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, albumin, or leukocyte count with coronary heart disease: Meta-analyses of prospective studies. JAMA 1998; 279: 1477-1482.
35. Ridker PM. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: Potential adjunct for global risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2001; 103: 1813-1818.
36. Van der Meer IM de Maat MPM Hak AE. C-reactive protein predicts progression of atherosclerosis measured at various sites in the arterial tree: The Rotterdam Study. Stroke 2002; 33: 2750-2755.
37. Aboyans V Criqui MH Denenberg JO Knoke JD Ridker PM Fronek A. Risk factors for progression of peripheral arterial disease in large and small vessels. Circulation 2006; 113: 2623-2629.
38. Musicant SE Taylor LM Peters D. Prospective evaluation of the relationship between C-reactive protein, D-dimer and progression of peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 2006; 43: 772-780.
39. McDermott MM Greenland P Green D. D-dimer, inflammatory markers, and lower extremity functioning in patients with and without peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2003; 107: 3191-3198.
40. McDermott MM Greenland P Guralnik JM. Inflammatory markers, D-dimer, pro-thrombotic factors, and physical activity levels in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med 2004; 9: 107-115.
41. McDermott MM Guralnik JM Greenland P. Inflammatory and thrombotic blood markers and walking-related disability in men and women with and without peripheral arterial disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52: 1888-1894.
42. McDermott MM Ferrucci L Liu K. D-dimer and inflammatory markers as predictors of functional decline in men and women with and without peripheral arterial disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005; 53: 1688-1696.
43. McDermott MM Liu K Guralnik JM. Functional decline in patients with and without peripheral arterial disease: Predictive value of annual changes in levels of C-reactive protein and D-dimer. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61: 374-379.
44. Vainas T Stassen FR de Graaf R. C-reactive protein in peripheral arterial disease: Relation to severity of the disease and to future cardiovascular events. J Vasc Surg 2005; 42: 243-251.
45. Vidula H Tian L Liu K. Biomarkers of inflammation and thrombosis as predictors of near-term mortality in patients with peripheral arterial disease: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148: 85-93.
46. Beckman JA Preis O Ridker PM Gerhard-Herman M. Comparison of usefulness of inflammatory markers in patients with versus without peripheral arterial disease in predicting adverse cardiovascular outcomes (myocardial infarction, stroke, and death). Am J Cardiol 2005; 96: 1374-1378.
47. Jenkins DJ Kendall CWC Marchie A. Effects of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods vs lovastatin on serum lipids and C-reactive protein. JAMA 2003; 290: 502-510.
48. Sierksma A van der Gaag MS Kluft C Hendriks HFJ. Moderate alcohol consumption reduces plasma C-reactive protein and fibrinogen levels; a randomized, diet-controlled intervention study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56: 1130-1136.
49. Jialal I Stein D Balis D Grundy SM Adams-Huet B Devaraj S. Effect of hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitor therapy on high sensitive C-reactive protein levels. Circulation 2001; 103: 1933-1935.
50. Albert MA Danielson E Rifai N Ridker PM. Effect of statin therapy on C-reactive protein levels: The pravastatin inflammation/CRP evaluation (PRINCE): A randomized trial and cohort study. JAMA 2001; 286: 64-70.
51. Despres JP Lemieux I Pascot A. Gemfibrozil reduces plasma C-reactive protein levels in abdominally obese men with the atherogenic dyslipidemia of the metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003; 23: 702-703.
52. Rallidis LS Paschos G Liakos GK Velissaridou AH Anastasiadis G Zampelas A. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid decreases C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and interleukin-6 in dyslipidaemic patients. Atherosclerosis 2003; 167: 237-242.
53. Nishimoto N Kishimoto T. Interleukin 6: From bench to bedside. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 2006; 2: 619-626.
54. Signorelli SS Mazzarino MC Di Pino L. High circulating levels of cytokines (IL-6 and TNFalpha), adhesion molecules (VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) and selectins in patients with peripheral arterial disease at rest and after a treadmill test. Vasc Med 2003; 8: 15-19.
55. Nylaende M Kroese A Stranden E. Markers of vascular inflammation are associated with the extent of atherosclerosis assessed as angiographic score and treadmill walking distances in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Vasc Med 2006; 11: 21-28.
56. Brevetti G Schiano V Chiariello M. Cellular adhesion molecules and peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med 2006; 11: 39-47.
57. Pradhan AD Rifai N Ridker PM. Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, soluble vascular adhesion molecule-1, and the development of symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in men. Circulation 2002; 106: 820-825.
58. Khaleghi M Ali Z Mosley TH Turner ST Kullo IJ. Association of soluble cell adhesion molecules with ankle-brachial index in a biethnic cohort of predominantly hypertensive individuals. Clin Chem 2008; 54: 1788-1795.
59. Van Haelst PL van Doormaal JJ May JF Gans RO Crijns HJ Cohen Tervaert JW. Secondary prevention with fluvastatin decreases levels of adhesion molecules, neopterin and C-reactive protein. Eur J Intern Med 2001; 12: 503-509.
60. Tardif J McMurray JJ Klug E. Aggressive Reduction of Inflammation Stops Events (ARISE) Trial Investigators. Effects of Succinobucol (AGI-1067) after an acute coronary syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008; 371: 1761-1768.
61. Wildman RP Muntner P Chen J Sutton-Tyrrell K He J. Relation of inflammation to peripheral arterial disease in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2002. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96: 1579-1583.
62. Nasir K Guallar E Navas-Acien A Criqui MH Lima JA. Relationship of monocyte count and peripheral arterial disease. Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 1966-1971.
63. Grau AJ Boddy AW Dukovic DA. Leukocyte count as an independent predictor of recurrent ischemic events. Stroke 2004; 35: 1147-1152.
64. Haumer M Amighi J Exner M. Association of neutrophils and future cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral artery disease. J Vasc Surg 2005; 41: 610-617.
65. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature 2002; 420: 868-874.
66. Coller BS. Leukocytosis and ischemic vascular disease morbidity and mortality: Is it time to intervene. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 658-670.
67. Madjid M Awan I Willerson JT Casscells SW. Leukocyte count and coronary heart disease: Implications for risk assessment. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 1945-1956.
68. Wilson AM Kimura E Harada RK. Beta2-microglobulin as a biomarker in peripheral arterial disease: Proteomic profiling and clinical studies. Circulation 2007; 116: 1396-1403.
69. Hoogeveen RC Morrison A Boerwinkle E. Plasma MCP-1 level and risk for peripheral arterial disease and incident coronary heart disease: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Atherosclerosis 2005; 183: 301-307.
70. Lee WJ Sheu WH Chen YT. Circulating CD40 ligand is elevated only in patients with more advanced symptomatic peripheral arterial diseases. Thromb Res 2005; 118: 619-626.
71. Brevetti G Schiano V Laurenzano E. Myeloperoxidase, but not C-reactive protein, predicts cardiovascular risk in peripheral arterial disease. Eur Heart J 2008; 29: 224-230.
72. Ali Z Sarcia P Mosley TH Kondragunta V Kullo IJ. Association of serum myeloperoxidase with peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med 2009 (in press).
73. Ali Z Ellington AA Mosley TH Kullo IJ. Association of serum osteoprotegerin with ankle-brachial index and urine albumin: Creatinine ratio in African-Americans and non-Hispanic whites. Atherosclerosis 2009 Apr 5. [Epub ahead of print]
74. Barani J Nilsson JA Mattiasson I Lindblad B Gottsater A. Inflammatory mediators are associated with 1-year mortality in critical limb ischemia. J Vasc Surg 2005; 42: 75-80.
75. Hamsten A Iselius L de Faire U, Blomback M. Genetic and cultural inheritance of plasma fibrinogen concentration. Lancet 1987; ii: 988-991.
76. Ernst E Resch KL. Fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor: A meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 956-963.
77. Ernst E Matrai A. Abstention from chronic cigarette smoking normalizes blood rheology. Atherosclerosis 1987; 64: 75-77.
78. Smith FB Lee AJ Hau CM Rumley A Lowe GD Fowkes FG. Plasma fibrinogen, haemostatic factors and prediction of peripheral arterial disease in the Edinburgh Artery Study. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2000; 11: 43-50.
79. Wattanakit K Folsom AR Selvin E. Risk factors for peripheral arterial disease incidence in persons with diabetes: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis 2005; 180: 389-397.
80. Murabito JM D'Agostino RB Silbershatz H Wilson PWF. Intermittent claudication: A risk profile from The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997; 96: 44-49.
81. Makin AJ; Chung NA; Silverman SH; Lip GY;. Thrombogenesis and endothelial damage/dysfunction in peripheral artery disease. Relationship to ethnicity and disease severity. Thromb Res 2003; 111: 221-226.
82. Lane JS Vittinghoff E Lane KT Hiramoto JS Messina LM. Risk factors for premature peripheral vascular disease: Results for the National Health and Nutritional Survey, 1999-2002. J Vasc Surg 2006; 44: 319-324.
83. Meijer WT Grobbee DE Hunink MG Hofman A Hoes AW. Determinants of peripheral arterial disease in the elderly: The Rotterdam study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 2934-2938.
84. Klein RL Hunter SJ Jenkins AJ. Fibrinogen is a marker for nephropathy and peripheral vascular disease in type 1 diabetes: Studies of plasma fibrinogen and fibrinogen gene polymorphism in the DCCT/EDIC cohort. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 1439-1448.
85. Philipp CS Cisar LA Kim HC Wilson AC Saidi P Kostis JB. Association of hemostatic factors with peripheral vascular disease. Am Heart J 1997; 134: 978-984.
86. Khawaja F, Turner S; Kardia S; Mosle T; Bailey K; Kullo IJ;. Novel risk factors are associated with ankle brachial index in African Americans and non-Hispanic whites. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; Suppl A: 294A.
87. Lowe GD Fowkes FG Dawes J Donnan PT Lennie SE Housley E. Blood viscosity, fibrinogen, and activation of coagulation and leukocytes in peripheral arterial disease and the normal population in the Edinburgh Artery Study. Circulation 1993; 87: 1915-1920.
88. Tzoulaki I Murray GD Price JF. Hemostatic factors, inflammatory markers, and progressive peripheral atherosclerosis: The Edinburgh Artery Study. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 163: 334-341.
89. Doweik L Maca T Schillinger M Budinsky A Sabeti S Minar E. Fibrinogen predicts mortality in high risk patients with peripheral artery disease. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2003; 26: 381-386.
90. Folsom A. Fibrinogen and cardiovascular risk in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. In: Ernst E (ed). Fibrinogen, a 'new' cardiovascular risk factor. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
91. Manolio TA Furberg CD Shemanski L. Associations of postmenopausal estrogen use with cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in older women. The CHS Collaborative Research Group. Circulation 1993; 88: 2163-2171.
92. Ernst E. Lowering the plasma fibrinogen concentration with drugs. Clin Pharm 1992; 11: 968-971.
93. Meade T Zuhrie R Cook C Cooper J. Bezafibrate in men with lower extremity arterial disease: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2002; 325: 1139.
94. Lee AJ Fowkes FG Lowe GD Rumley A. Fibrin D-dimer, haemostatic factors and peripheral arterial disease. Thromb Haemost 1995; 74: 828-832.
95. Reich LM Heiss G Boland LL Hirsch AT Wu K Folsom AR. Ankle-brachial index and hemostatic markers in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study cohort. Vasc Med 2007; 12: 267-273.
96. Tzoulaki I Murray GD Lee AJ Rumley A Lowe GD Fowkes FG. Inflammatory, haemostatic, and rheological markers for incident peripheral arterial disease: Edinburgh Artery Study. Eur Heart J 2007; 28: 354-362.
97. Packard CJ O'Reilly DS Caslake MJ. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 as an independent predictor of coronary heart disease. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1148-1155.
98. Kardys I Oei HH van der Meer IM Hofman A Breteler MM Witteman JC. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and measures of extracoronary atherosclerosis: The Rotterdam Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26: 631-636.
99. Allison MA Denenberg JO Nelson JJ Natarajan L Criqui MH. The association between lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and cardiovascular disease and total mortality in vascular medicine patients. J Vasc Surg 2007; 46: 500-506.
100. Loscalzo J. Lipoprotein(a). A unique risk factor for atherothrombotic disease. Arteriosclerosis 1990; 10: 672-679.
101. Li XN Grenett HE Benza RL. Genotype-specific transcriptional regulation of PAI-1 expression by hypertriglyceridemic VLDL and Lp(a) in cultured human endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17: 3215-3223.
102. Levin EG Miles LA Fless GM. Lipoproteins inhibit the secretion of tissue plasminogen activator from human endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb 1994; 14: 438-442.
103. Grainger DJ Kirschenlohr HL Metcalfe JC Weissberg PL Wade DP Lawn RM. Proliferation of human smooth muscle cells promoted by lipoprotein(a). Science 1993; 260: 1655-1658.
104. Valentine RJ Grayburn PA Vega GL Grundy SM. Lp(a) lipoprotein is an independent, discriminating risk factor for premature peripheral atherosclerosis among white men. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 801-806.
105. Valentine RJ Kaplan HS Green R Jacobsen DW Myers SI Clagett GP. Lipoprotein (a), homocysteine, and hypercoagulable states in young men with premature peripheral atherosclerosis: A prospective, controlled analysis. J Vasc Surg 1996; 23: 53-61.
106. Widmann MD Sumpio BE. Lipoprotein (a): A risk factor for peripheral vascular disease. Ann Vasc Surg 1993; 7: 446-451.
107. Cheng SW Ting AC Wong J. Lipoprotein (a) and its relationship to risk factors and severity of atherosclerotic peripheral vascular disease. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 1997; 14: 17-23.
108. Sofi F Lari B Rogolino A. Thrombophilic risk factors for symptomatic peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 2005; 41: 255-260.
109. Sutton-Tyrrell K Evans RW Meilahn E Alcorn HG. Lipoprotein(a) and peripheral atherosclerosis in older adults. Atherosclerosis 1996; 122: 11-19.
110. Tseng CH. Lipoprotein(a) is an independent risk factor for peripheral arterial disease in Chinese type 2 diabetic patients in Taiwan. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 517-521.
111. Kraft HG Lingenhel A Kochl S. Apolipoprotein(a) kringle IV repeat number predicts risk for coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 16: 713-719.
112. Kronenberg F Kronenberg MF Kiechl S. Role of lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) phenotype in atherogenesis: Prospective results from the Bruneck study. Circulation 1999; 100: 1154-1160.
113. Marcovina SM Albers JJ Wijsman E Zhang Z Chapman NH Kennedy H. Differences in Lp(a) concentrations and apo(a) polymorphs between black and white Americans. J Lipid Res 1996; 37: 2569-2585.
114. Moliterno DJ Jokinen EV Miserez AR. No association between plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations and the presence or absence of coronary atherosclerosis in African-Americans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15: 850-855.
115. Paultre F Pearson TA Weil HF. High levels of Lp(a) with a small apo(a) isoform are associated with coronary artery disease in African American and white men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20: 2619-2624.
116. Kostner GM Gavish D Leopold B Bolzano K Weintraub MS Breslow JL. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors lower LDL cholesterol without reducing Lp(a) levels. Circulation 1989; 80: 1313-1319.
117. Maher VM Brown BG Marcovina SM Hillger LA Zhao XQ Albers JJ. Effects of lowering elevated LDL cholesterol on the cardiovascular risk of lipoprotein(a). JAMA 1995; 274: 1771-1774.
118. Sacks FM McPherson R Walsh BW. Effect of postmenopausal estrogen replacement on plasma Lp(a) lipoprotein concentrations. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 1106-1110.
119. Shlipak MG Simon JA Vittinghoff E. Estrogen and progestin, lipoprotein(a), and the risk of recurrent coronary heart disease events after menopause. JAMA 2000; 283: 1845-1852.
120. Morgan JM Capuzzi DM Guyton JR. A new extended-release niacin (Niaspan): efficacy, tolerability, and safety in hypercholesterolemic patients. Am J Cardiol 1998; 12A: 29U-34U.
121. Gurakar A Hoeg JM Kostner G Papadopoulos NM Brewer HB. Levels of lipoprotein Lp(a) decline with neomycin and niacin treatment. Atherosclerosis 1985; 57: 293-301.
122. Kashyap ML McGovern ME Berra K. Long-term safety and efficacy of a once-daily niacin/lovastatin formulation for patients with dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 672-678.
123. Welch GN Loscalzo J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 1042-1050.
124. Jacques PF Bostom AG Williams RR. Relation between folate status, a common mutation in methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, and plasma homocysteine concentrations. Circulation 1996; 93: 7-9.
125. Kang SS Wong PW Cook HY Norusis M Messer JV. Protein-bound homocyst(e)ine. A possible risk factor for coronary artery disease. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 1482-1486.
126. Nedrebo BG Ericsson UB Nygard O. Plasma total homocysteine levels in hyperthyroid and hypothyroid patients. Metabolism 1998; 47: 89-93.
127. Ubbink JB Vermaak WJ van der Merwe A Becker PJ. Vitamin B-12, vitamin B-6, and folate nutritional status in men with hyperhomocysteinemia. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 47-53.
128. Bostom AG Culleton BF. Hyperhomocysteinemia in chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999; 10: 891-900.
129. Darius H Pittrow D Haberl R. Are elevated homocysteine plasma levels related to peripheral arterial disease? Results from a cross-sectional study of 6880 primary care patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2003; 33: 751-757.
130. Ciccarone E Di Castelnuovo A Assanelli D. Homocysteine levels are associated with the severity of peripheral arterial disease in Type 2 diabetic patients. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 2540-2547.
131. Boushey CJ Beresford SA Omenn GS Motulsky AG. A quantitative assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. Probable benefits of increasing folic acid intakes. JAMA 1995; 274: 1049-1057.
132. Taylor LM Moneta GL Sexton GJ Schuff RA Porter JM. Prospective blinded study of the relationship between plasma homocysteine and progression of symptomatic peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 1999; 29: 8-19.
133. Lange S Trampisch HJ Haberl R. Excess 1-year cardiovascular risk in elderly primary care patients with a low ankle-brachial index (ABI) and high homocysteine level. Atherosclerosis 2005; 178: 351-357.
134. Guallar E Silbergeld EK Navas-Acien A. Confounding of the relation between homocysteine and peripheral arterial disease by lead, cadmium, and renal function. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 163: 700-708.
135. Lonn E Yusuf S Arnold MJ. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1567-1577.
136. Albert CM Cook NR Gaziano JM. Effect of folic acid and B vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: A randomized trial. JAMA 2008; 299: 2027-2036.
137. Boger RH Bode-Boger SM Thiele W Junker W Alexander K Frolich JC. Biochemical evidence for impaired nitric oxide synthesis in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Circulation 1997; 95: 2068-2074.
138. Mittermayer F Krzyzanowska K Exner M. Asymmetric dimethylarginine predicts major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with advanced peripheral artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26: 2536-2540.
139. Boger RH Bode-Boger SM Thiele W Creutzig A Alexander K Frolich JC. Restoring vascular nitric oxide formation by l-arginine improves the symptoms of intermittent claudication in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32: 1336-1344.
140. Wilson AM Harada R Nair N Balasubramanian N Cooke JP. L-Arginine supplementation in peripheral arterial disease: No benefit and possible harm. Circulation 2007; 116: 188-195.
141. Madamanchi NR Vendrov A Runge MS. Oxidative stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 29-38.
142. Pipinos II Judge AR Zhu Z. Mitochondrial defects and oxidative damage in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2006; 41: 262-269.
143. Makin AJ Chung NA Silverman SH Lip GY. Vascular endothelial growth factor and tissue factor in patients with established peripheral artery disease: A link between angiogenesis and thrombogenesis. Clin Sci (Lond) 2003; 104: 397-404.
144. Tayebjee MH Tan KT MacFadyen RJ Lip GY. Abnormal circulating levels of metalloprotease 9 and its tissue inhibitor 1 in angiographically proven peripheral arterial disease: Relationship to disease severity. J Intern Med 2005; 257: 110-116.
145. Signorelli SS Malaponte G Libra M. Plasma levels and zymographic activities of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in type II diabetics with peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med 2005; 10: 1-6.
146. Mueller T Dieplinger B Poelz W Haltmayer M. Increased pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A as a marker for peripheral atherosclerosis: Results from the Linz Peripheral Arterial Disease Study. Clin Chem 2006; 52: 1096-1103.
147. Blann AD Belgore FM McCollum CN Silverman S Lip PL Lip GY. Vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor, Flt-1, in the plasma of patients with coronary or peripheral atherosclerosis, or Type II diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond) 2002; 102: 187-194.
148. Findley CM Mitchell RG Duscha BD Annex BH Kontos CD. Plasma levels of soluble Tie2 and vascular endothelial growth factor distinguish critical limb ischemia from intermittent claudication in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52: 387-393.
149. Allison MA Criqui MH McClelland RL. The effect of novel cardiovascular risk factors on the ethnic-specific odds for peripheral arterial disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 1190-1197.