Bycatch and beached birds: Assessing mortality impacts in coastal net fisheries using marine bird strandings

Marine Ornithology

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 41-60

  Hamel, Nathalie J ^a   Burger, Alan E ^b   Charleton, Kristin ^c   Davidson, Peter ^d   Lee, Sandi ^d   Bertram, Douglas F ^c   Parrish, Julia K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^c INSTITUTE OF OCEAN SCIENCES   (Canada)

^d ENVIRONMENT CANADA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Beached bird surveys; British Columbia; Common Murre; Salish Sea; Seabird bycatch; Uria aalge; Washington

Indexed keywords

BYCATCH; FISHERY MANAGEMENT; FISHING EFFORT; GILLNET; MORTALITY; POPULATION DISTRIBUTION; SALMONID FISHERY; SEABIRD; STRANDING;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CANADA; NORTH AMERICA; PACIFIC OCEAN; PACIFIC OCEAN (NORTHWEST);

AVES; LARIDAE; URIA AALGE;

EID: 70349873666     PISSN: 10183337     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. AINLEY, D.G., PAGE, G.W., JONES, I.L., STENZEL, L.E. & LEVALLEY, R.L. 1980. Beached marine birds and mammals of the North American west coast: a manual for their census and identification. Publication no. FWS/OBS-80/03. Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service. 207 pp.
2. AINLEY, D.G., NETTLESHIP, D.N., CARTER, H.R. & STOREY, A.E. 2002. Common Murre (Uria aalge). In: Poole, A. & Gill, F. (Eds). The birds of North America. No. 661. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America, Inc. 44 pp.
3. ARTYUKHIN, Y.B. & BURKANOV, V.N. 2000. Incidental mortality of seabirds in the drift net salmon fishery by Japanese vessels in the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone, 1993-97. In: Kondratyev, A.Y., Litvinenko, N.M. & Kaiser, G.W. (Eds). Seabirds of the Russian Far East. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. pp. 105-115.
4. BAKUN, A. 1996. Patterns in the ocean: ocean processes and marine population dynamics. La Jolla, CA: California Sea Grant College System. 323 pp.
5. BAYER, R.D., LOWE, R.W. & LOEFFEL, R.E. 1991. Persistent summer mortalities of Common Murres along the Oregon central coast. Condor 91: 516-525.
6. BENJAMINS, S., KULKA, D.W. & LAWSON, J. 2008. Incidental catch of seabirds in Newfoundland and Labrador gillnet fisheries, 2001-2003. Endangered Species Research 5: 149-160.
7. BOLAND, K.M. & LITVAITIS, J.A. 2008. Role of predation and hunting on eastern cottontail mortality at Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts. Canadian Journal of Zoology 86: 918-927.
8. BOYCE, M.S., SINCLAIR, A.R.E. & WHITE, G.C. 1999. Seasonal compensation of predation and harvesting. Oikos 87: 419-426.
9. BRIGGS, K.T., VAROUJEAN, D.H., WILLIAMS, W.W., FORD, R.G., BONNELL, M.L. & CASEY, J.L. 1992. Seabirds of the Oregon and Washington OCS, 1989-1990. In: Brueggeman, J.J. (Ed). Oregon and Washington marine mammal and seabird surveys. Portland, OR: Ecological Consulting, Inc. Ch. 3, pp. 1-162.
10. BROWN, N.A. & GAYDOS, J.K. 2007. Species of concern within the Georgia Basin Puget Sound marine ecosystem: changes from 2002 to 2006. Proceedings of the 2007 Georgia Basin Puget Sound Research Conference. Vancouver, BC: Environment Canada and the Puget Sound Action Team. 10 pp.
11. BUGONI, L., KRAUSE, L. & PETRY, M.V. 2001. Marine debris and human impacts on sea turtles in southern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42: 1330-1334.
12. BURGER, A.E. 1993. Mortality of seabirds assessed from beached-bird surveys in southern British Columbia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 107: 164-176.
13. BURNHAM, K.P. & ANDERSON, D.R. 2002. Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. 2nd edition. New York: Springer. 488 pp.
14. BYRD, B.L., HOHN, A.A., MUNDEN, F.H., LOVEWELL, G.N. &LO PICCOLO, R.E. 2008. Effects of commercial fishing regulations on stranding rates of Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Fishery Bulletin 106: 72-81.
15. CAMPHUYSEN, C.J. & HEUBECK, M. 2001. Marine oil pollution and beached bird surveys: the development of a sensitive monitoring instrument. Environmental Pollution 112: 443-461.
16. CARTER, H.R., WILSON, U.W., LOWE, R.W., RODWAY, M.S., MANUWAL, D.A., TAKEKAWA, J.E. & YEE, J.L. 2001. Population trends of the Common Murre (Uria aalge californica). In: Manuwal, D.A., Carter, H.R., Zimmermann, T.S. & Orthmeyer, D.L. (Eds). Biology and conservation of the Common Murre in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Vol. 1. Natural history and population trends. Information and Technology Report USGS/BRD/ITR-2000-0012. Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. pp. 33-68.
17. CHALOUPKA, M., WORK, T.M., BALAZS, G.H., MURAKAWA, S.K.K. & MORRIS, R. 2008. Cause-specific temporal and spatial trends in green sea turtle strandings in the Hawaiian Archipelago (1982-2003). Marine Biology 154: 887-898.
18. COX, T.M., READ, A.J., BARCO, S., EVANS, J., GANNON, D.P., KOOPMAN, H.N., MCLELLAN, W.A., MURRAY, K., NICOLAS, J., PABST, D.A., POTTER, C.W., SWINGLE, W.M., THAYER, V.G., TOUHEY, K.M. & WESTGATE, A.J. 1998. Documenting the bycatch of Harbor Porpoises, Phocoena phocoena, in coastal gillnet fisheries from stranded carcasses. Fishery Bulletin 96: 727-734.
19. CRAWLEY, M.J. 2007. The R book. Chischester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. 942 pp.
20. CROWDER, L. & MURAWSKI, S.A. 1998. Fisheries bycatch: implications for management. Fisheries 23: 8-17.
21. DAGYS, M. & ŽYDELIS, R. 2002. Bird bycatch in fishing nets in Lithuanian coastal waters in wintering season 2001-2002. Acta Zoologica Lituanica 12: 276-282.
22. DAVOREN, G.K. 2007. Effects of gill-net fishing on marine birds in a biological hotspot in the Northwest Atlantic. Conservation Biology 21: 1032-1045.
23. DELORD, K., BESSON, D., BARBRAUD, C. & WEIMERSKIRCH, H. 2008. Population trends in a community of large procellariiforms of Indian Ocean: potential effects of environment and fisheries interactions. Biological Conservation 141: 1840-1856.
24. DFO (DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS). 1993. Pacific fishery regulations, 1993. [Available online at: http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cr/SOR-93-54///en?page=1; accessed 20 June 2007]
25. DFO (DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS). 2001. Pacific region-Integrated fisheries management plan: Salmon. Southern BC. April 1, 2001 to March 31, 2002. Vancouver, BC: DFO. [Available online at: http://www-ops2.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/xnet/content/MPLANS/archive/2001/SalmS01pl.PDF; accessed March 2009]
26. DFO (DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS). 2007. Summary commercial statistics. Vancouver, BC: DFO. [Available online at: http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sci/sa/Commercial/AnnSumm_e.htm]
27. DFO (DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS). 2008. Licensed fishing vessel directory-Pacific region. Vancouver, BC: DFO. [Available online at: http://www-ops2.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Ops/VRNdirectory/LicReportSelect.cfm; accessed March 2009]
28. DIGGLE, P.J., HEAGERTY, P., LIANG, K.Y. & ZEGER, S.L. 2002. The analysis of longitudinal data. 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 379 pp.
29. DUNAGAN, C. 2007a. More than 200 dead seabirds raise alarm. Kitsap Sun. October 24, 2007. [Available online at: http://www.kitsapsun.com/news/2007/oct/24/more-than-200-dead-seabirds-raise-alarm/; accessed March 2009]
30. DUNAGAN, C. 2007b. More dead birds reported near Kingston. Kitsap Sun. October 30, 2007. [Available online at: http://www.kitsapsun.com/news/2007/oct/30/more-dead-seabirds-reported-near-kingston/; accessed March 2009]
31. EGUCHI, T. 2002. A method for calculating the effect of a die-off from stranding data. Marine Mammal Science 18: 698-709.
32. ENGIE, K. & KLINGER, T. 2007. Modeling passive dispersal through a large estuarine system to evaluate marine reserve network connections. Estuaries and Coasts 30: 201-213.
33. EPPERLY, S.P., BRAUN, J., CHESTER, A.J., CROSS, F.A., MERRINER, J.V., TESTER, P.A. & CHURCHILL, J.H. 1996. Beach strandings as an indicator of at-sea mortality of sea turtles. Bulletin of Marine Science 59: 289-297.
34. ERSTAD, P., JEFFRIES, S. & PIERCE, D.J. 1994. 1994 Preliminary report for areas 7 & 7A Puget Sound fishery observer program: non-treaty Sockeye gill net fishery. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 8 pp.
35. ERSTAD, P., JEFFRIES, S. & PIERCE, D.J. 1996a. 1994 Preliminary report for the Puget Sound fishery observer program in management areas 10/11 & 12/12B: nontreaty Chum gill net fishery. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 14 pp.
36. ERSTAD, P., JEFFRIES, S.J. & PIERCE, D.J. 1996b. 1994 Report for the Puget Sound Fishery Observer Program in management areas 10/11 & 12/12B: nontreaty Chum gill net fishery. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 14 pp.
37. FINKELSTEIN, M., BAKKER, V., DOAK, D.F., SULLIVAN, B., LEWISON, R., SATTERTHWAITE, W.H., MCINTYRE, P.B., WOLF, S., PRIDDEL, D., ARNOLD, J.M., HENRY, R.W., SIEVERT, P. & CROXALL, J. 2008. Evaluating the potential effectiveness of compensatory mitigation strategies for marine bycatch. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2480.
38. FLINT, P. & FOWLER, A.C. 1998. A drift experiment to assess the influence of wind on recovery of oiled seabirds on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 36: 165-166.
39. FORD, R.G. 1991. Seabird mortality resulting from the Nestucca oil spill incident, winter 1988-89: final report. Portland, OR: Ecological Consulting, Inc. 77 pp.
40. FORD, R.G. 2006. Using beached bird monitoring data for seabird damage assessment: the importance of search interval. Marine Ornithology 34: 91-98.
41. FORNEY, K.A., BENSON, S.R. & CAMERON, G. 2001. Central California effort and bycatch of sensitive species, 1990-1998. In: Melvin, E. & Parrish, J.K. (Eds). Seabird bycatch: trends, roadblocks, and solutions. University of Alaska Sea Grant, AK-SG-01-01. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Sea Grant. pp 141-160.
42. FRASER, D.A., GAYDOS, J.K., KARLSEN, E. & RYLKO, M.S. 2006. Collaborative science, policy development and program implementation in the transboundary Georgia Basin/Puget Sound ecosystem. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 113: 49-69.
43. GANDINI, P., BOERSMA, P.D., FRERE, E., GANDINI, M., HOLIK, T. & LICHTSCHEIN, V. 1994. Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) affected by chronic petroleum pollution along coast of Chubut, Argentina. Auk 111: 20-27.
44. GASTON, A.J. & DECHESNE, S.B. 1996. Rhinoceros Auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata). In: Poole, A. & Gill, F. (Eds). The birds of North America. No. 212. Philadelphia, PA: The Birds of North America, Inc. [Available online at: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/212; accessed 5 March 2009]
45. GUSTAFSON, R.G., WAPLES, R.S., MYERS, J.M., WEITKAMP, L.A., BRYANT, G.J., JOHNSON, O.W. & JARD, J.J. 2007. Pacific Salmon extinctions: quantifying lost and remaining diversity. Conservation Biology 21: 1009-1020.
46. HALL, M.A., ALVERSON, D.L. & METUZALS, K.I. 2000. By-catch: problems and solutions. Marine Pollution Bulletin 41: 204-219.
47. HAMEL, N.J., PARRISH, J.K. & LAAKE, J. 2008. Linking colonies to fisheries: spatio-temporal overlap between Common Murres (Uria aalge) from Tatoosh Island and coastal gillnet fisheries in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Biological Conservation 141: 3101-3115.
48. HARRISON, C.S. 2001. Epilogue revisited: constraints to seabird conservation in Northwest salmon drift gillnet fisheries. In: Melvin, E.F. & Parrish, J.K. (Eds). Seabird bycatch: trends, roadblocks and solutions. University of Alaska Sea Grant, AK-SG-01-01. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Sea Grant. pp. 185-189.
49. HART, K.M., MOORESIDE, P. & CROWDER, L.B. 2006. Interpreting the spatio-temporal patterns of sea turtle strandings: going with the flow. Biological Conservation 129: 283-290.
50. HASS, T. & PARRISH, J.K. 2002. Beached birds: a COASST field guide. Seattle: Wavefall Press.
51. HAZEL, J. & GYURIS, E. 2006. Vessel-related mortality of sea turtles in Queensland, Australia. Wildlife Research 33: 149-154.
52. HIPFNER, J.M. 2005. Population status of the Common Murre Uria aalge in British Columbia, Canada. Marine Ornithology 33: 67-69.
53. HLADY, D.A. & BURGER, A.E. 1993. Drift-block experiments to analyze the mortality of oiled seabirds off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 26: 495-501.
54. HODDER, J. & GRAYBILL, M.R. 1985. Reproduction and survival of seabirds in Oregon during the 1982-1983 El Niño. Condor 87: 535-541.
55. INCHAUSTI, P. & WEIMERSKIRCH, H. 2002. Dispersal and metapopulation dynamics of an oceanic seabird, the Wandering Albatross, and consequence for its response to long-line fisheries. Journal of Animal Ecology 71: 765-770.
56. JORDING, J., IVERSON, A. & BURNS, C. 2007. Non-treaty Puget Sound commercial salmon fisheries annual report 2007 [Unpublished report]. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Puget Sound Commercial Salmon Unit, Fish Management Division. 38 pp.
57. KAISER, G.W. 1993. Seabird wreck in Boundary Bay. Pacific Seabird Group Bulletin 20: 18-20.
58. KELLEHER, K. 2005. Discards in the world's marine fisheries: an update. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 131 pp.
59. KLINGER, T. & EBBESMEYER, C.C. 2002. Using oceanographic linkages to guide marine protected area network design. Proceedings of the 2001 Puget Sound Research Conference. Olympia, WA: Puget Sound Action Team. 24 pp.
60. LANCE, M.M. & THOMPSON, C.W. 2005. Overlap in diets and foraging of Common Murres (Uria aalge) and Rhinoceros Auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata) after the breeding season. Auk 122: 887-901.
61. LEE, D.E., ABRAHAM, C.L., WARZYBOK, P.M., BRADLEY, R.W. & SYDEMAN, W.J. 2008. Age-specific survival, breeding success, and recruitment of Common Murres (Uria aalge) of the California Current System. Auk 125: 316-325.
62. LEWISON, R.L., CROWDER, L.B. & SHAVER, D.J. 2003. The impact of turtle excluder devices and fisheries closures on Loggerhead and Kemp's Ridley strandings in the western Gulf of Mexico. Conservation Biology 17: 1089-1097.
63. LEWISON, R.L., CROWDER, L.B., READ, A.J. & FREEMAN, S.A. 2004. Understanding impacts of fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 598-604.
64. LICHATOWICH, J. 1999. Salmon without rivers: a history of the Pacific salmon crisis. Washington, DC: Island Press. 317 pp.
65. LOGERWELL, E.A., MANTUA, N.J., LAWSON, P., FRANCIS, R.C. & AGOSTINI, V. 2003. Tracking environmental processes in the coastal zone for understanding and predicting Oregon Coho (Oncorhyncus kisutch) marine survival. Fisheries Oceanography 12: 554-568.
66. MAHAFFY, M.N., NYSEWANDER, D.R., VERMEER, K., WAHL, T.R. & WHITEHEAD, P.E. 1994. Status, trends and potential threats related to birds in the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound and Juan de Fuca Strait. Olympia, WA: US Fish Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement. pp 256-281.
67. MANUWAL, D.A. & CARTER, H.R. 2001. Natural history of the Common Murre (Uria aalge californica). In: Manuwal, D.A., Carter, H.R., Zimmerman, T.S. & Orthmeyer, D.L. (Eds). Biology and conservation of the Common Murre in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Vol. 1. Natural history and population trends. Information and Technology Report USGS/BRD/ITR-2000-0012. Washington, DC: US Geological Survey. pp. 1-32.
68. MELVIN, E.F. 1995. Reduction of seabird entanglements in salmon drift gillnets through gear modification. WSG 95-01. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Sea Grant Program. 19 pp.
69. MELVIN, E.F. & CONQUEST, L.L. 1996. Reduction of seabird bycatch in salmon drift gillnet fisheries: 1995 Sockeye/Pink Salmon fishery final report. Project number A/FP-2(a). WSG AS 96-01. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Sea Grant Program. 50 pp.
70. MELVIN, E.F., CONQUEST, L.L. & PARRISH, J.K. 1997. Seabird bycatch reduction: new tools for Puget Sound drift gillnet salmon fisheries: 1996 Sockeye and 1995 Chum non-treaty salmon test fisheries final report. Project A/FP-7. WSG-AS 97-01. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Sea Grant Program. 48 pp.
71. MELVIN, E.F., PARRISH, J.K. & CONQUEST, L.L. 1999. Novel tools to reduce seabird bycatch in coastal gillnet fisheries. Conservation Biology 13: 1386-1397.
72. MILLER, T.J. & SKALSKI, J.R. 2006. Estimation of seabird bycatch for North Pacific longline vessels using design- and model-based methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: 1878-1889.
73. MORGAN, L. & CHUENPAGDEE, R. 2003. Shifting gears: addressing the collateral impacts of fishing methods in USA waters. Washington, DC: Island Press Publication Services. 42 pp.
74. MUNILLA, I., DIEZ, C. & VELANDO, A. 2007. Are edge bird populations doomed to extinction? A retrospective analysis of the Common Guillemot collapse in Iberia. Biological Conservation 137: 359-371.
75. NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH CENTER. 2008. Diagnostic services case report, case #20526. Madison, WI: US Geological Survey.
76. NAUGHTON, M.B., PITKIN, D.S., LOWE, R.W., SO, K.J. & STRONG, C.S. 2007. Catalog of Oregon seabird colonies. Biological technical publication FWS/BTP-R1009-2007. Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 481 pp.
77. NEARSHORE HABITAT PROGRAM. 2001. The Washington State shorezone inventory. Olympia, WA: Washington State Department of Natural Resources.
78. NEVINS, H.M., PHILLIPS, E.M., GIBBLE, C. & HARVEY, J.T. 2008. Central coast marine bird health study: year 3 (2005-2007). Moss Landing, CA: California State University, Moss Landing Marine Laboratory. [Available online at: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/ospr/report/ssep/final_reports/2006-08_SSEPseabird_year3_Final-REPORT_07-30-08.pdf; accessed 5 March 2009]
79. NUR, N. & SYDEMAN, W.J. 1999. Demographic processes and population dynamic models of seabirds: implications for conservation and restoration. In: Nolan Jr., V., Ketterson, E. D. and Thompson, C. F. (Eds). Current Ornithology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 149-188.
80. NYSEWANDER, D.R., EVENSON, J.R., MURPHIE, B.L. & CYRA, T.A. 2001. Report of marine bird and marine mammal component, Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program, for July 1992 to December 1999 period. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Program. 161 pp.
81. ÖSTERBLOM, H., FRANSSON, T. & OLSSON, O. 2002. Bycatches of Common Guillemot (Uria aalge) in the Baltic Sea gillnet fishery. Biological Conservation 105: 309-319.
82. PARRISH, J.K., MARVIER, M. & PAINE, R.T. 2001. Direct and indirect effects: interactions between Bald Eagles and Common Murres. Ecological Applications 11: 1858-1869.
83. PARRISH, J.K., BOND, N., NEVINS, H., MANTUA, N., LOEFFEL, R., PETERSON, W.T. & HARVEY, J.T. 2007. Beached birds and physical forcing in the California Current System. Marine Ecology Progress Series 352: 275-288.
84. PECKHAM, S.H., DIAZ, D.M., WALLI, A., RUIZ, G., CROWDER, L.B. & NICHOLS, W.J. 2007. Small-scale fisheries bycatch jeopardizes endangered Pacific Loggerhead Turtles. PLoS ONE 2: e1041.
85. PETERSON, B., EMMETT, R., GOERICKE, R., VENRICK, E., MANTYLA, A., BOGRAD, S.J., SCHWING, F.B., RALSTON, S., FORNEY, K.A., HEWITT, R., LO, N., WATSON, W., BARLOW, J., LOWRY, M., LAVANIEGOS, B.E., CHAVEZ, F., SYDEMAN, W.J., HYRENBACH, D., BRADLEY, R.W., WARZYBOK, P., HUNTER, K., BENSON, S., WEISE, M. & HARVEY, J. 2006. The state of the California Current, 2005-2006: warm in the north, cool in the south. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports 47: 30-74.
86. PIATT, J.F., NETTLESHIP, D.N. & THRELFALL, W. 1984. Net-mortality of Common Murres and Atlantic Puffins in Newfoundland, 1951-81. In: Nettleship, D.N., Sanger, G.A. & Springer, P.F. (Eds). Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial fisheries relationships. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. pp. 196-206.
87. PIERCE, J.D., RITCHIE, W.P. & KREUZIGER, R. 1994. Preliminary findings of seabird interactions with the non-treaty salmon gillnet fishery: Puget Sound and Hood Canal Washington [Unpublished report]. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 39 pp.
88. PIERCE, D.J., ALEXANDERSDORTTIR, M., JEFFRIES, S.J., ERSTAD, P., BEATTIE, W. & CHAPMAN, A. 1996. Interactions of Marbled Murrelets and marine mammals with the 1994 Puget Sound Sockeye gill net fishery [Unpublished report]. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 21 pp.
89. PUGET SOUND ACTION TEAM. 2007. Puget Sound update: ninth report of the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program. Olympia, WA: Puget Sound Action Team. 260 pp.
90. R DEVELOPMENT CORE TEAM. 2008. R: a language and environment for statistical computing (version 2.7.1, June 2008). Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. [Available online at: http://www.R-project.org; accessed 5 March 2009]
91. READ, A.J., DRINKER, P. & NORTHRIDGE, S. 2006. Bycatch of marine mammals in US and global fisheries. Conservation Biology 20: 163-169.
92. RICE, C.A. 2007. Evaluating the biological condition of Puget Sound [PhD dissertation]. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 270 pp.
93. RUCKELSHAUS, M.H. & McCLURE, M. 2007. Sound science: synthesizing ecological and socioeconomic information about the Puget Sound ecosystem. Seattle, WA: US Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center. 93 pp. [Available online at: http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/shared/sound_science/documents/SoundScience07.pdf; accessed March 2009]
94. RUSSELL, R.W. 1999. Comparative demography and life history tactics of seabirds: implications for conservation and marine monitoring. In: Musick, J.A. (Ed). Life in the slow lane: ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. American Fisheries Symposium 23. Bethesda, Md: American Fisheries Society. pp. 51-76.
95. SALZMAN, J.E. 1989. Scientists as advocates-the Point Reyes Bird Observatory and gill netting in Central California. Conservation Biology 3: 170-180.
96. SAUERS, K.A., KLINGER, T., COOMES, C. & EBBESMEYER, C.C. 2004. Synthesis of 41,300 drift cards released in Juan de Fuca Strait (1975-2002). In: Droscher, T.W. & Frase, D.A. (Eds). Proceedings of the 2003 Georgia Basin/Puget Sound Research Conference. Olympia, WA: Puget Sound Action Team.
97. SCHOLIN, C.A., GULLAND, F., DOUCETTE, G.J., BENSON, S., BUSMAN, M., CHAVEZ, F.P., CORDARO, J., DELONG, R., DE VOGELAERE, A., HARVEY, J., HAULENA, M., LEFEBVRE, K., LIPSCOMB, T., LOSCUTOFF, S., LOWENSTINE, L.J., MARIN, R., MILLER, P.E., MCLELLAN, W.A., MOELLER, P.D.R., POWELL, C.L., ROWLES, T., SILVAGNI, P., SILVER, M., SPRAKER, T., TRAINER, V. & VAN DOLAH, F.M. 2000. Mortality of sea lions along the central California coast linked to a toxic diatom bloom. Nature 403: 80-84.
98. SCHWING, F.B., BOND, N.A., BOGRAD, S.J., MITCHELL, T., ALEXANDER, M.A. & MANTUA, N. 2006. Delayed coastal upwelling along the US west coast in 2005: a historical perspective. Geophysical Research Letters 33: L22S01.
99. SEYS, J., OFFRINGA, H., VAN WAEYENBERGE, J., MEIRE, P. &KUIJKEN, E. 2002. An evaluation of beached bird monitoring approaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44: 322-333.
100. SHEPARD, M.P. & ARGUE, A.W. 2005. The 1985 Pacific salmon treaty: sharing conservation burdens and benefits. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press. 288 pp.
101. SMITH, J.L. & MORGAN, K.H. 2005. An assessment of seabird bycatch in longline and net fisheries in British Columbia. Technical report series no. 401. Delta, BC: Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region. 51 pp.
102. SPEICH, S.M. & WAHL, T.R. 1989. Catalog of Washington seabird colonies. Biological report 88. Olympia, WA: US Fish and Wildlife Service. 510 pp.
103. STEPHEN, C. & BURGER, A.E. 1994. A comparison of two methods for surveying mortality of beached birds in British Columbia. Canadian Veterinary Journal 35: 631-635.
104. STRICKLAND, R.M. 1983. The fertile fjord: plankton in Puget Sound. Seattle, WA: Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington. 145 pp. [Available online at: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/communications/online/fjord/index.html; accessed March 2009].
105. SYDEMAN, W. J., HESTER, M. M., THAYER, J. A., GRESS, F., MARTIN, P. & BUFFA, J. 2001. Climate change, reproductive performance and diet composition of marine birds in the southern California Current system, 1969-1997. Progress in Oceanography 49: 309-329.
106. SYDEMAN, W.J., BRADLEY, R.W., WARZYBOK, P., ABRAHAM, C.L., JAHNCKE, J., HYRENBACH, K.D., KOUSKY, V., HIPFNER, J.M. & OHMAN, M.D. 2006. Planktivorous auklet Ptychoramphus aleuticus responses to ocean climate, 2005: unusual atmospheric blocking? Geophysical Research Letters 33: L22S09.
107. TAKEKAWA, J.E., HARVEY, T.E. & CARTER, H.R. 1990. Decline of the Common Murre in central California, 1980-1986. Studies in Avian Biology 14: 149-163.
108. TASKER, M.L., CAMPHUYSEN, K.C.J., COOPER, J., GARTHE, S., MONTEVECCHI, W.A. & BLABER, S.J.M. 2000. The impacts of fishing on marine birds. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 531-547.
109. TAYLOR, S.S., LEONARD, M.L., BONESS, D.J. & MAJLUF, P. 2002. Foraging by Humboldt Penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) during the chick-rearing period: general patterns, sex differences, and recommendations to reduce incidental catches in fishing nets. Canadian Journal of Zoology 80: 700-707.
110. TENYO MARU OIL SPILL NATURAL RESOURCE TRUSTEES. 2000. Final restoration plan and environmental assessment for the Tenyo Maru oil spill. Lacey, WA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Western Washington Office. 70 pp. [Available online at: http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/pacific/tenyo/pdf/ten0008.pdf; accessed 5 March 2009]
111. THOMPSON, C.W., WILSON, M.L., PIERCE, D.J. & DEGHETTO, D. 1998. Population characteristics of Common Murres and Rhinoceros Auklets entangled in gillnets in Puget Sound, Washington, from 1993 to 1994. Northwestern Naturalist 79: 77-91.
112. THOMSON, R.E. 1981. Oceanography of the British Columbia coast. Ottawa, ON: Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 291 pp.
113. TROUTMAN, B.L., JEFFRIES, S.J. & YOUNG, T.A. 1991. Identification of areas for potential seabird mortality in the commercial salmon gillnet and purse seine fisheries of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and northern Puget Sound. Final report prepared for the US Fish and Wildlife Service, Refuges and Wildlife Resources. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Wildlife, Wildlife Management Division, Nongame Program. 26 pp.
114. UHLMANN, S., FLETCHER, D. & MOLLER, H. 2005. Estimating incidental takes of shearwaters in driftnet fisheries: lessons for the conservation of seabirds. Biological Conservation 123: 151-163.
115. VERMEER, K. & YDENBERG, R.C. 1989. Feeding ecology of marine birds in the Strait of Georgia. In: Vermeer, K. & Butler, R.W. (Eds). The ecology, status and conservation of marine and shoreline birds on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Special publication. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. pp. 62-73.
116. VERMEER, K., MORGAN, K.H. & SMITH, G.E.J. 1992. Habitat analysis and co-occurrence of seabirds on the west coast of Vancouver Island. In: Vermeer, K., Butler, R.W. & Morgan, K.H. (Eds). The ecology, status and conservation of marine and shoreline birds on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Occasional paper no. 75. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. pp. 78-85.
117. VOTIER, S.C., HATCHWELL, B.J., BECKERMAN, A., MCCLEERY, R.H., HUNTER, F.M., PELLATT, J., TRINDER, M. & BIRKHEAD, T.R. 2005. Oil pollution and climate have wide-scale impacts on seabird demographics. Ecology Letters 8: 1157-1164.
118. VOTIER, S.C., BIRKHEAD, T.R., ORO, D., TRINDER, M., GRANTHAM, M.J., CLARK, J.A., MCCLEERY, R.H. & HATCHWELL, B.J. 2008. Recruitment and survival of immature seabirds in relation to oil spills and climate variability. Journal of Animal Ecology 77: 974-983.
119. WAHL, T. 1969. North Pacific Coast: alcids. Audubon Field Notes 24: 86.
120. WARHEIT, K.I. & THOMPSON, C. 2004. Common Murre, Uria aalge. In: Larsen, E.M., Azerrad, J.M. & Nordstrom, N. (Eds). Management recommendations for Washington's priority species. Vol. IV. Birds. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Ch. 21, pp. 1-13. [Available online at: http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/phs/vol4/comu.pdf; accessed March 2009]
121. WATSON, R., REVENGA, C. & KURA, Y. 2006. Fishing gear associated with global marine catches. I. Database development. Fisheries Research 79: 97-102.
122. WDFW (WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND WILDLIFE). 2008. 2008 Puget Sound commercial salmon regulations. Olympia, WA: WDFW. [Available online at: http:// wdfw.wa.gov/fish/regs/commregs/2008commregs.pdf; accessed May 2008]
123. WDFW (WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND WILDLIFE). 2009. How tribes and state co-manage salmon and steelhead. Olympia, WA: WDFW. [Available online at: http:// wdfw.wa.gov/factshts/comgrs.htm; accessed March 2009]
124. WIESE, F. 2003. Sinking rates of dead birds: improving estimates of seabird mortality due to oiling. Marine Ornithology 31: 65-70.
125. WIESE, F.K. & ELMSLIE, K. 2006. Underuse and misuse of data from beached bird surveys. Marine Ornithology 34: 157-159.
126. WIESE, F.K. & ROBERTSON, G.J. 2004. Assessing seabird mortality from chronic oil discharges at sea. Journal of Wildlife Management 68: 627-638.
127. WIESE, F.K. & RYAN, P.C. 2003. The extent of chronic marine oil pollution in southeastern Newfoundland waters assessed through beached bird surveys 1984-1999. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46: 1090-1101.
128. WIESE, F.K., ROBERTSON, G.J. & GASTON, A.J. 2004. Impacts of chronic marine oil pollution and the murre hunt in Newfoundland on Thick-billed Murre Uria lomvia populations in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Biological Conservation 116: 205-216.
129. WILCOX, C. & DONLAN, J.C. 2007. Compensatory mitigation as a solution to fisheries bycatch-biodiversity conservation conflicts. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5: 325-331.
130. WILSON, L.K., MOUL, I.E., LANGELIER, K.M. & ELLIOT, J.E. 1995. Summary of bird mortalities in British Columbia and Yukon, 1963-1994. Technical report series no. 249. Delta, BC: Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region. 205 pp.
131. WILSON, U.W. 1991. Responses of three seabird species to El Niño events and other warm episodes on the Washington Coast, 1979-1990. Condor 93: 853-858.
132. WILSON, U.W. 2003. Common murre colony surveys with management recommendations for Point Grenville. Port Angeles, WA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington Maritime Refuges.
133. WILSON, U.W. 2005. The effect of the 1997-1998 El Niño on Rhinoceros Auklets on Protection Island, Washington. Condor 107: 462-468.
134. WILSON, U.W. & MANUWAL, D.A. 1986. Breeding biology of the Rhinoceros Auklet in Washington. Condor 88: 143-155.
135. ZAMON, J.E. 2003. Mixed species aggregations feeding upon herring and sandlance schools in a nearshore archipelago depend on flooding tidal currents. Marine Ecology Progress Series 261: 243-255.
136. ZAR, J.H. 1999. Biostatistical analysis. 4th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 663 pp.
137. ŽYDELIS, R., MINDAUGAS, D. & VAITKUS, G. 2006. Beached bird surveys in Lithuania reflect marine oil pollution and bird mortality in fishing nets. Marine Ornithology 34: 161-166.