Palette of our palates: A brief history of food coloring and its regulation

Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 394-408

  Burrows, Adam ^a  

^a BOSTON CONSULTING GROUP   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 70349333944     PISSN: 15414337     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00089.x     Document Type: Review

References (248)

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2. Is the Alternative Clear?, ST. PETERSBURG TIMES (Florida), Jan. 14, 1993, at 6D.
3. Id.
4. Annetta Miller and Karen Springen, Clear, and Cashing In, Newsweek, Feb. 15, 1993 at 52.
5. Id.
6. Is the Alternatve Clear?, endnote 2.
7. Judy Hevrdejs, An Eye for Color: Foodmakers Tempt our Palates With Their Palettes Chicago Tribune, July 14, 2000, at 1 Tempo.
8. Id.
9. David Johnson, Color Psychology, InfoPlease Encyclopedia, 2000 to 2005 Pearson Education, available from: . Accessed Apr 5, 2006.
10. An Eye for Color, endnote 7.
11. Nanci Hellmich, Food industry turns to color to sell to kids, USA Today, March 20, 2002.
12. Nancy Stohs, Color my world with natural hues; Some food products getting a little too colorful, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Oct. 24,2001, 1G.
13. Id.
14. Food industry turns to color to sell to kids, endnote 11.
15. Harold McKone, The Unadulterated History of Food Dyes, ChemMatters (Journal of the American Chemical Society), Dec, 1999.
16. Food Coloring, Food & Culture Encyclopedia at Families.com, 2003, available from: . Accessed Apr 5, 2006.
17. John Henkel, From Shampoo to Cereal: Seeing to the Safety of Color Additives, FDA Consumer, Dec, 1993.
18. Elizabeth Lee, Color it... edible?, Atlanta JournalConstitution, Mar. 11, 2002, 1H.
19. Elise Fleming, Food Coloring Agents, reprinted on About.com, Mar. 1996, available from: .
20. See Id., discussing the variety of exotic additive listed in cookbooks for the upper class.
21. Food Coloring, endnote 16.
22. Id.
23. From Shampoo to Cereal, endnote 17.
24. The Unadulterated History of Food Dyes, endnote 15.
25. Halvor Moorshead, Bread, History Magazine, Oct/Nov., 1999.
26. Food Coloring, endnote 16.
27. Friedrich Accum, A treatise on adulterations of food and culinary poisons, exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of bread, beer, wine, spiritous liquors, tea, coffee, cream, confectionery, vinegar, mustard, pepper, cheese, olive oil, pickles, and other articles employed in domestic economy, and methods of detecting them. Longman, 1820.
28. Id.
29. Id.
30. Id.
31. Alum, Wikipedia, available from: . Accessed Apr 5, 2006.
32. A treatise on adulterations of food and culinary poisons, endnote 26.
33. The Unadulterated History of Food Dyes, endnote 15.
34. A treatise on adulterations of food and culinary poisons, endnote 26.
35. The Fight Against Food Adulteration, Education in Chemistry (Publication of the Royal Society of Chemistry), Mar. 2005.
36. Food Coloring, endnote 16.
37. Arthur Hassall, Food and its adulterations; comprising the reports of the analytical sanitary commission of 'The Lancet' for the years 1851-1854. Longman, 1855.
38. Id.
39. The Fight Against Food Adulteration, endnote 35.
40. Id.
41. Id.
42. Anonymous, Enquire Within Upon Everything, Houlston and Sons 1894, (1856).
43. Id.
44. Id.
45. The Fight Against Food Adulteration, endnote 35.
46. G. Edward Damon and Wallace F. Janseen, Additives For Eye Appeal, FDA Consumer, Jul. and Aug., 1973.
47. Julle Barrows, Arthur Lipman, Catherine Bailey, Color Additives: FDA's Regulatory Process and Historical Perspectives, Food Safety Magazine, Oct./Nov. 2003. Research on the use of colors in food was begun by the USDA's Bureau of Chemistry.
48. The Unadulterated History of Food Dyes, endnote 15.
49. Id.
50. 5aAdditives For Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
51. Donna U. Vogt, Food Additives Regulation: A Chronology, Congressional Research Service Report, 1995.
52. Wiley Act (Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906), 28 U.S.C. §1934 (repealed 1938).
53. Simon Garfield, Mauve: How One Man Invented a Color that Changed the World, W.W. Norton, 1 st ed., 2001.
54. From Shampoo to Cereal, endnote 17.
55. Additives For Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
56. Id.
57. Adam Young, The War on Margarine, The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty, June 2002.
58. Id.
59. See People v. Marx, 99 N.Y. 377 (1885).
60. See Schollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 US 1 (1898).
61. Adulterated Butter Act aka Oleomargarine Act, 24 Stat. 209 (1886).
62. History of Margarine, Timeline from the National Association of Margarine Manufacturers, available from: . Accessed Apr 9, 2006.
63. Thomas Nast, Harpers Weekly, August 7, 1886, available from: .
64. The War on Margarine, endnote 57.
65. See, for example People v. Arensberg, 105 N.Y. 123 (1886)
66. -155 US 461, 467-468 (1894).
67. See Oleomargarine Act of 1886, endnote 61.
68. History of Margarine, endnote 62.
69. Oleomargarine Act, 32 Stat. 193 (1902).
70. -195 US 27 (1904).
71. The War on Margarine, endnote 57.
72. Margarlne, Practically Edible Food Encyclopedia, available from: . Accessed Apr 9, 2006.
73. -171 US 30 (1898).
74. Id. at 33.
75. Id.
76. Id. at 34.
77. See, for example, Oleomargarine Act of 1902, endnote 69.
78. William Shurtleff & Akiko Aoyagi, History of Soy Oil Margarine (2004) (unpublished manuscript, on file at the Soyfoods Center, available from: ). Accessed Apr 9, 2006.
79. The War on Margarine, endnote 57.
80. See Oleomargarine Act Amended, 46 Stat. 1022 (1930).
81. History of Margarine, endnote 62.
82. Id.
83. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21, U.S.C §347 (1950).
84. Available from: , , Accessed Apr 9, 2006.
85. The War on Margarine, endnote 57.
86. Bob Veierstahler, Oleo Wars Timeline, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Sept. 18, 2004.
87. Reid J. Epstein, Butter beware, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Sept. 18, 2004.
88. Canada's conflicted relationship with margarine, CBC News Online, Mar. 18, 2005, available from: . Accessed Apr 9, 2006.
89. -34 Stat. 768 (1906).
90. Additives for Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
91. Id.
92. Erythrosin is now known as Red nr 3; Amaranth is Red nr 2; Indigo disulfo acid, also known as lndigotine, is Blue nr 2. Source: FDA, Food Color Facts, 1993 (official brochure).
93. Id.
94. Suzanne White Junod, Looking Back and Forward: The Upcoming Centennial of the 1906 Pure Food and Drugs Act, Update Magazine, Jan./Feb. 2005. (Cartoon unattributed).
95. Additives for Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
96. Id.
97. 52Stat. 1040(1938).
98. -21 U.S.C. §(1938).
99. Food Color Facts, endnote 92.
100. -21 U.S.C. §2b(4) (1938).
101. -21 U.S.C. §(1938).
102. Plumley v. Massachusetts, endnote 66.
103. -202 F. 615 (8th Cir. 1913).
104. Id. At 623.
105. Id.
106. -21 U.S.C. §(1938).
107. 122A.2d 77 (Pa. 1956).
108. Id. at 82.
109. Id. at 83.
110. Id.
111. 96F.2d972 (5th Cir. 1938).
112. Id. at 973.
113. Id.
114. Id.
115. -187 F.2d 967 (3rd Cir. 1951).
116. Id. at 971.
117. Seeld at 971-972.
118. Id. at 972.
119. 147F.2d 123 (6th Cir. 1945).
120. See Id.
121. -181 F. 427(D. ill. 1910).
122. Id.
123. Id.
124. -286 F. 84 (7th Cir. 1923).
125. -21 U.S.C. §) (1938).
126. -21 U.S.C. §(1938).
127. Flemmingv. Florida Citrus Exchange, 358 U.S. 153 (1958).
128. Additives for Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
129. See Certified Color Industry Committee v. Secretary of Health, Education & Welfare, 236 F.2d 866 (2nd Cir. 1956).
130. Florida Citrus Exchange, 358 U.S. 153.
131. See Dyestuffs & Chemicals Inc. v. Flemming, 271 F.2d 281 (8th Cir. 1959).
132. See Florida Citrus Exchange, 358 U.S. 153.
133. Id. at 167.
134. Seeid. at 159.
135. Id. at 167.
136. Food Additives Regulation: A Chronology, endnote 51.
137. Additives for Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
138. H.R. Rep. No. 81-1761 (1960). Alternatively 1960 U.S.C.C.A.N. 2887.
139. Id. at 2890.
140. Id. at 2890 to 289.
141. Philip M. Boffey, Death of a Dye? The New Times Magazine, Feb. 29, 1976, p. 9.
142. H.R. Rep. nr 81 to 1761. at 2890 to 2891.
143. Id. at 2889 to 2990.
144. Id at2891 to 2892.
145. -21 U.S.C. §(1960).
146. -21 C.F.R. 70(2002).
147. -21 U.S.C. §(1960).
148. Kimberly Hundley, Evolving Colorant Industry Offers Rainbow of Possibilities, Natural Products Insider, Feb. 2002.
149. -21 U.S.C. §379(3) (1960).
150. Catherine Nielsen & Kevin Boot, The Use of Colorants in Packaging Applications, available from: www.PackagingLaw. com, Oct. 1991. Accessed Apr 16, 2006.
151. Bud Brewster, 50 Years Of Cosmetic Color, Cosmetics and Toiletries, Dec. 1995.
152. See for example, Public Citizen v. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 632 F.Supp. 220 (D.D.C. 1986) (upholding the numerous series of extensions and deferral of decisions that the FDA had granted to certain provisionally listed colors).
153. -21 U.S.C. §(2004). The pre-approval process is detailed in 21 C.F.R §(2002).
154. -21 C.F.R. §to §74 (2002).
155. For many colors, the limitation on use is no more specific than "amounts consistent with good manufacturing practice." 156Unless there are any special requirements for a particular additive, the regulation usually refers back to 21 C.F.R. §70.25-the general labeling requirement for color additives.
156. The certification process is outlined in 21 C.F.R §(2002).
157. Harold Hopkins, The Color Additive Scoreboard, FDA Consumer, Mar., 1980.
158. Report on the Certification of Color Additives FDA, Fiscal 2006 1st quarter, available from: . Accessed Apr 16, 2006.
159. -21 U.S.C. §721 (b)(5)(B).
160. -21 U.S.C §(1958).
161. H.R. Rep. nr 81 to 1761 at 2893 to 2894.
162. Id. at 2895 to 2896.
163. Id. at 1196.
164. To Ban or Not to Ban, That Is the Question, The National Journal, July 6, 1985, at 1572.
165. Id.
166. Id.
167. Id.
168. 728F.2d322 (6th Cir. 1984).
169. Id.
170. -613 F.2d 947 (D.C. Cir. 1979).
171. Id.
172. See Public Citizen v. Young, 831 F.2d 1108 (D.C. Cir. 1987). Note: It is unclear which Rep. King is quoted in the case, Rep. Cecil King, D-CA, or Rep. David King, D-Utah.
173. Id.
174. Id.
175. Irvin Molotsky, Court Rejects a Loosening Of Curb on Color Additives, The New York Times, Oct. 24, 1989, Sec. 1, P. 8.
176. Deborah Blumenthal, 4 Dyes Fading Under Scrutiny by U.S. Courts, The New York Times, July 9, 1988, Sec. 1, P. 52.
177. Patricia McLaughlin, Seeing Red Dye No. 3, Chicago Tribune, Apr. 22, 1990, Tempowoman, P. 5.
178. Dale Blumenthal, Red No. 3 and Other Colorful Controversies, FDA Consumer, May 1990.
179. Seeing Red Dye No. 3, endnote 178.
180. Report on the Certification of Color Additives, endnote 159.
181. Seeing Red Dye No. 3, endnote 178.
182. Malcolm Gladwell, Red Dye's Reluctant Regulator, The Washington Post, Feb. 7, 1990, A21.
183. Id.
184. H.R. 1627, 104th Cong. (1996).
185. -21 U.S.C. §364(a)(2004).
186. Marian Segal, ngredient Labeling: What's in a Food? FDA Consumer, May 1993.
187. -21 U.S.C §343-1.
188. -58 Fed. Reg. 2950 (Jan. 6, 1993) (codified at 21 C.F.R §101.22 [2002]).
189. BeatriceTrum Hunter, What Are Natural Food Colors?, Consumer's Research Magazine, Aug. 1, 1999, p. 20.
190. Such as Yellow nr 5, See 21 C.F.R. §74.705.
191. -21 C.F.R §101.22 (2002).
192. Additives for Eye Appeal, endnote 46.
193. Marian Burros, Immediate U.S. Ban On Tar Dyes Asked, The Washington Post, Jan. 12, 1977, A3.
194. Death of a Dye?, endnote 141.
195. Id.
196. Color manufacturers regularly sought and were granted petition extensions after the Color Additive Amendments were enacted in 1960, on the basis of long-term studies that could not be completed during the two and a naif year grace period allowed by the statute. Id.
197. Id.
198. Id.
199. Id.
200. Id.
201. Id.
202. Avery Comarow, Less-than-scary health scares, U.S. News & World Report, Nov. 13, 2000, p. 70.
203. See Immediate U.S. Ban On Tar Dyes Asked, endnote 194,
204. see also From Shampoo to Cereal, endnote 17.
205. Immediate U.S. Ban On Tar Dyes Asked, endnote 194.
206. Id.
207. -44 Fed. Reg. 37,212 (June 26, 1979)(codified at 21 C.F.R. §[2002]).
208. Ellen Jane Pollock, Why Mountain Dew Is Now the Talk Of the Teen Circuit, The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 14, 1999, A1.
209. Available from: . Accessed Apr 20, 2006.
210. See F.J. Stare, E.M. Whelan, & M. Sheridan, Diet and Hyperactivity: Is there a relationship, Pediatrics, Oct. 1980, Vol. 66(4), P. 521.
211. See also E.H. Wender, The food-additive free diet in the treatment of behavioral disorders: a review, Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Feb. 1986, Vol. 7(1), P. 35.
212. Food Color Facts, endnote 92.
213. National Advisory Committee on Hyperkinesis and Food Additives. Final Report To The Nutrition Foundation, New York, NY (1980).
214. K.J. Rowe & K.S. Rowe, Synthetic Food Coloring and Behavior: A dose response effect in a double-blind placebo-controlled, repeated-measure study, Journal of Pediatrics, Nov. 1994, Vol. 125(5), P. 691.
215. Feingold Association, available from: http://www.feingold. org. Accessed Apr 20, 2006.
216. See Eugene Grossman, The Feingold Diet for the Hyperactive Child, American Family Physician, Oct. 1982, Vol. 26(4), P. 101.
217. Jane Zhang, Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say, The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 27, 2006, BI.
218. Beatrice Trum Hunter, What Are Natural Food Colors?, Consumers' Research Magazine, Aug. 1, 1999, P. 20.
219. Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say, endnote 216.
220. -71 Fed. Reg. 4839, Jan. 30, 2006 (to be codified at 21 C.F.R §73.100and 21 C.F.R §73.2087 (2002)).
221. Id.
222. -21 C.F.R. §101.22(2002).
223. Press Release, Center for Science in the Public Interest, FDA Urged to Improve Labeling of or Ban Carmine Food Coloring (Aug. 24, 1998). See also Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say, endnote 216.
224. Available from: . Accessed Apr 20, 2006.
225. Id.
226. Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say, endnote 216.
227. -71 Fed. Reg. 4839, endnote 219.
228. What Are Natural Food Colors?, endnote 217.
229. Paul Rogers, Rainbow Coalition: color additives in candy, Candy Industry, Jan. 1, 2001, P. 40.
230. An industry term used to connote an ingredient label that contains no synthetic additives. What Are Natural Food Colors?, endnote 217.
231. Lynn Kuntz, Colors Au Naturel, Food Product Design, Mar. 1998.
232. There are currently only seven coal-tar colors that have FDA approval for general use in foods (Blue nr 1, Blue nr 2, Green nr 3, Red nr 3, Red nr 40, Yellow nr 5, and Yellow nr 6) Two others, Orange B and Citrus Red nr 2, are allowable only in very narrow applications. See Id.
233. -21 C.F.R. §73.30 (2002).
234. What Are Natural Food Colors?, endnote 217.
235. Rainbow Coalition: color additives in candy, endnote 228.
236. -21 C.F.R. §73.340 (2002).
237. -21 C.F.R. §73.450 (2002).
238. What Are Natural Food Colors?, endnote 217.
239. Rainbow Coalition: color additives in candy, endnote 228.
240. "E." is the nomenclature used to identify colors by the European Union. See Parliament and Council Directive 94/36/EC of 30 June 1994 on colors for use in foodstuffs, Official Journal of the European Communities, Sept. 10, 1994, No. L 237/13.
241. See FDA, Summary of Color Additives Listed for Use in the United States, available from: .
242. See also . Accessed Apr 20, 2006.
243. -21 C.F.R. §73.250 (2002).
244. -21 C.F.R. §(2002).
245. Rainbow Coalition: color additives in candy, endnote 225.
246. See also Kantha Shelke, Coloring for kids, Food Processing, Dec. 1, 2004, P. 35.
247. Andrew Loesel, Colorful growth; future of the food colorings market, Chemical Marketing Reporter, June 15, 1992, P.SR25.
248. -70 Fed. Reg. 43,043, July 26, 2005 (To be codified at 21 C.F.R. §The petition was submitted by the LycoRed company, whose product, Tomat-O-Red is billed as a replacement for synthetic reds and cochineal-based dyes with added antioxidant health benefits, available from: http://www.lycored.com. Accessed Apr 20, 2006.