Controversies in childhood arterial ischemic stroke and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy

Volumn 7, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 853-861

  Eleftheriou, Despina ^a   Ganesan, Vijeya ^a  

^a GREAT ORMOND STREET HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Arterial ischemic stroke; Childhood; Patent foramen ovale; Revascularization; Thrombolysis

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; CLOPIDOGREL; DABIGATRAN ETEXILATE; DIPYRIDAMOLE; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HEPARIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; TICLOPIDINE; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; WARFARIN; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT;

ANTICOAGULATION; ARTERY DISEASE; ARTERY DISSECTION; BLOOD CLOT LYSIS; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN VASCULITIS; CEREBRAL REVASCULARIZATION; CEREBRAL SINUS THROMBOSIS; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHILD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; LOW DRUG DOSE; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; MOYAMOYA DISEASE; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATENT FORAMEN OVALE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SECONDARY PREVENTION; STROKE; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; VEIN THROMBOSIS; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN VEIN; CEREBRAL ARTERY DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL;

ANTICOAGULANTS; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CEREBRAL ARTERIAL DISEASES; CEREBRAL VEINS; CHILD; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; HUMANS; PLATELET AGGREGATION INHIBITORS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SINUS THROMBOSIS, INTRACRANIAL; STROKE;

EID: 70349323118     PISSN: 14779072     EISSN: 17448344     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/erc.09.41     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. Amlie-Lefond C, Sebire G, Fullerton HJ. Recent developments in childhood arterial ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol. 7, 425-435 (2008).
2. deVeber G. Stroke and the child's brain: an overview of epidemiology, syndromes and risk factors. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 15, 133-138 (2002).
3. Roach ES, Golomb MR, Adams R et al. Management of stroke in infants and children: a scientific statement from a Special Writing Group of the American Heart Association Stroke Council and the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Stroke 39, 2644-2691 (2008).
4. McGlennan C, Ganesan V. Delays in investigation and management of acute arterial ischaemic stroke in children. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 50, 537-540 (2008). (Pubitemid 351973638)
5. Eleftheriou D, Ganesan V. Treatment strategies for childhood stroke. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 9, 2955-2967 (2008).
6. Monagle P, Chalmers E, Chan A et al. Antithrombotic therapy in neonates and children: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 133, 887S-968S (2008). (Pubitemid 351892979)
7. Paediatric Stroke Working Group. Stroke in Childhood: Clinical Guidelines for Diagnosis, Management and Rehabilitation. Royal College of Physicians, London, UK (2004).
8. Mallick AA, Ganesan V. Arterial ischemic stroke in children - recent advances. Indian J. Pediatr. 75, 1149-1157 (2008).
9. Ganesan V, Prengler M, Wade A, Kirkham FJ. Clinical and radiological recurrence after childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Circulation 114, 2170-2177 (2006). (Pubitemid 44747898)
10. Fullerton HJ, Wu YW, Sidney S, Johnston SC. Risk of recurrent childhood arterial ischemic stroke in a population-based cohort: the importance of cerebrovascular imaging. Pediatrics 119, 495-501 (2007). (Pubitemid 46407518)
11. Amlie-Lefond C, Bernard TJ, Sebire G et al. Predictors of cerebral arteriopathy in children with arterial ischemic stroke: results of the international pediatric stroke study. Circulation 119, 1417-1423 (2009).
12. Danchaivijitr N, Cox TC, Saunders DE, Ganesan V. Evolution of cerebral arteriopathies in childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Ann. Neurol. 59, 620-626 (2006).
13. Sebire G, Fullerton H, Riou E, deVeber G. Toward the definition of cerebral arteriopathies of childhood. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 16, 617-622 (2004). (Pubitemid 39552209)
14. Sebire G, Meyer L, Chabrier S. Varicella as a risk factor for cerebral infarction in childhood: a case-control study. Ann. Neurol. 45, 679-680 (1999). (Pubitemid 29217602)
15. Sebire G. Transient cerebral arteriopathy in childhood. Lancet 368, 8-10 (2006).
16. Braun KP, Rafay MF, Uiterwaal CS, Pontigon AM, deVeber G. Mode of onset predicts etiological diagnosis of arterial ischemic stroke in children. Stroke 38, 298-302 (2007).
17. Elbers J, Benseler SM. Central nervous system vasculitis in children. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 20, 47-54 (2008). (Pubitemid 351339431)
18. Calabrese LH, Mallek JA. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Report of 8 new cases, review of the literature, and proposal for diagnostic criteria. Medicine (Baltimore) 67, 20-39 (1988).
19. Eleftheriou D, Clarke LA, Hong Y, Klein N, Ganesan V, Brogan PA. Circulating endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells in childhood primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Pediatr. Rheumatol. 6(Suppl. 1), P276 (2008).
20. Kuroda S, Houkin K. Moyamoya disease: current concepts and future perspectives. Lancet Neurol. 7, 1056-1066 (2008).
21. Scott RM, Smith ER. Moyamoya disease and moyamoya syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 360, 1226-1237 (2009).
22. Dobson SR, Holden KR, Nietert PJ et al. Moyamoya syndrome in childhood sickle cell disease: a predictive factor for recurrent cerebrovascular events. Blood 99, 3144-3150 (2002).
23. Adams R, McKie V, Nichols F et al. The use of transcranial ultrasonography to predict stroke in sickle cell disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 326, 605-610 (1992).
24. Axel L. Blood flow effects in magnetic resonance imaging. Magn. Reson. Annu. 237-244 (1986).
25. Yang JJ, Hill MD, Morrish WF et al. Comparison of pre- and postcontrast 3D time-of-flight MR angiography for the evaluation of distal intracranial branch occlusions in acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 23, 557-567 (2002).
26. Ishimaru H, Ochi M, Morikawa M et al. Accuracy of pre- and postcontrast 3D time-of-flight MR angiography in patients with acute ischemic stroke: correlation with catheter angiography. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 28, 923-926 (2007). (Pubitemid 46776076)
27. Bash S, Villablanca JP, Jahan R et al. Intracranial vascular stenosis and occlusive disease: evaluation with CT angiography, MR angiography, and digital subtraction angiography. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 26, 1012-1021 (2005). (Pubitemid 43821943)
28. Gatscher S, Brew S, Banks T, Simcock C, Sullivan Y, Crockett J. Multislice spiral computed tomography for pediatric intracranial vascular pathophysiologies. J. Neurosurg. 107, 203-208 (2007).
29. Aviv RI, Benseler SM, DeVeber G et al. Angiography of primary central nervous system angiitis of childhood: conventional angiography versus magnetic resonance angiography at presentation. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 28, 9-15 (2007). (Pubitemid 46147525)
30. Rollins N, Dowling M, Booth T, Purdy P. Idiopathic ischemic cerebral infarction in childhood: depiction of arterial abnormalities by MR angiography and catheter angiography. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 21, 549-556 (2000). (Pubitemid 30149350)
31. Fung E, Ganesan V, Cox TS, Chong WK, Saunders DE. Complication rates of diagnostic cerebral arteriography in children. Pediatr. Radiol. 35, 1174-1177 (2005). (Pubitemid 41829704)
32. Fullerton HJ, Johnston SC, Smith WS. Arterial dissection and stroke in children. Neurology 57, 1155-1160 (2001).
33. Rafay MF, Armstrong D, deVeber G, Domi T, Chan A, MacGregor DL. Craniocervical arterial dissection in children: clinical and radiographic presentation and outcome. J. Child Neurol. 21, 8-16 (2006).
34. Schievink WI. Spontaneous dissection of the carotid and vertebral arteries. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 898-906 (2001).
35. Di Tullio MR, Sacco RL, Sciacca RR, Jin Z, Homma S. Patent foramen ovale and the risk of ischemic stroke in a multiethnic population. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 797-802 (2007). (Pubitemid 46240713)
36. Mas JL, Arquizan C, Lamy C et al. Recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 1740-1746 (2001). (Pubitemid 34940229)
37. Ganesan V, Prengler M, McShane MA, Wade AM, Kirkham FJ. Investigation of risk factors in children with arterial ischemic stroke. Ann. Neurol. 53, 167-173 (2003). (Pubitemid 36163997)
38. Bartz PJ, Cetta F, Cabalka AK et al. Paradoxical emboli in children and young adults: role of atrial septal defect and patent foramen ovale device closure. Mayo Clin. Proc. 81, 615-618 (2006).
39. Kenny D, Turner M, Martin R. When to close a patent foramen ovale. Arch. Dis. Child. 93, 255-259 (2008). (Pubitemid 352025503)
40. Clark WM, Wissman S, Albers GW, Jhamandas JH, Madden KP, Hamilton S. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (Alteplase) for ischemic stroke 3 to 5 hours after symptom onset. The ATLANTIS Study: a randomized controlled trial. Alteplase thrombolysis for acute noninterventional therapy in ischemic stroke. JAMA 282, 2019-2026 (1999).
41. Hacke W, Kaste M, Fieschi C et al. Intravenous thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for acute hemispheric stroke. The European Cooperative Acute Stroke Study (ECASS). JAMA 274, 1017-1025 (1995).
42. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 1581-1587 (1995).
43. Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party. National Clinical Guidelines for Stroke (Third Edition). Royal College of Physicians, London, UK (2008).
44. Amlie-Lefond C, Benedict SL, Benard T et al. Thrombolysis in children with arterial ischemic stroke: initial results from the International Paediatric Stroke Study (abstract). Stroke 38, 485 (2007).
45. Benedict SL, Ni OK, Schloesser P, White KS, Bale JF Jr. Intra-arterial thrombolysis in a 2-year-old with cardioembolic stroke. J. Child Neurol. 22, 225-227 (2007). (Pubitemid 46860426)
46. Belvis R. Thrombolysis for acute stroke in pediatrics. Stroke 38, 1722-1723 (2007).
47. Shuayto MI, Lopez JI, Greiner F. Administration of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator in a pediatric patient with acute ischemic stroke. J. Child Neurol. 21, 604-606 (2006). (Pubitemid 44295144)
48. Bourekas EC, Slivka AP, Casavant MJ. Intra-arterial thrombolysis of a distal internal carotid artery occlusion in an adolescent. Neurocrit. Care 2, 179-182 (2005).
49. Siegbahn A, Ruusuvaara L. Age dependence of blood fibrinolytic components and the effects of low-dose oral contraceptives on coagulation and fibrinolysis in teenagers. Thromb. Haemost. 60, 361-364 (1988). (Pubitemid 19023723)
50. Monagle P, Barnes C, Ignjatovic V A et al. Developmental haemostasis. Impact for clinical haemostasis laboratories. Thromb. Haemost. 95, 362-372 (2006).
51. Barnes C, Deveber G. Prothrombotic abnormalities in childhood ischaemic stroke. Thromb. Res. 118, 67-74 (2006).
52. Gabis LV, Yangala R, Lenn NJ. Time lag to diagnosis of stroke in children. Pediatrics 110, 924-928 (2002). (Pubitemid 35266151)
53. Ansell J, Hirsh J, Poller L, Bussey H, Jacobson A, Hylek E. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 126, 204S-233S (2004). (Pubitemid 39297955)
54. Eriksson BI, Smith H, Yasothan U, Kirkpatrick P. Dabigatran etexilate. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 7, 557-558 (2008).
55. Chen ZM, Sandercock P, Pan HC et al. Indications for early aspirin use in acute ischemic stroke : a combined analysis of 40 000 randomized patients from the chinese acute stroke trial and the international stroke trial. On behalf of the CAST and IST collaborative groups. Stroke 31, 1240-1249 (2000).
56. CAST: randomised placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20,000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. CAST (Chinese Acute Stroke Trial) Collaborative Group. Lancet 349, 1641-1649 (1997).
57. Mohr JP, Thompson JL, Lazar RM et al. A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 1444-1451 (2001).
58. Belvis R, Pagonabarraga J, Santamaria A, Kulisevsky J. Clopidogrel in secondary ischemic stroke prevention. Recent Pat. Cardiovasc. Drug Discov. 3, 119-125 (2008).
59. Mandava P, Thiagarajan P, Kent TA. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists in acute ischaemic stroke: current status and future directions. Drugs 68, 1019-1028 (2008). (Pubitemid 351693672)
60. Soman T, Rafay MF, Hune S, Allen A, MacGregor D, deVeber G. The risks and safety of clopidogrel in pediatric arterial ischemic stroke. Stroke 37, 1120-1122 (2006).
61. Houkin K, Kamiyama H, Abe H, Takahashi A, Kuroda S. Surgical therapy for adult moyamoya disease. Can surgical revascularization prevent the recurrence of intracerebral hemorrhage? Stroke 27, 1342-1346 (1996). (Pubitemid 26286165)
62. Isono M, Ishii K, Kamida T, Inoue R, Fujiki M, Kobayashi H. Long-term outcomes of pediatric moyamoya disease treated by encephalo-duro-arterio- synangiosis. Pediatr. Neurosurg. 36, 14-21 (2002). (Pubitemid 34702032)
63. Fung LW, Thompson D, Ganesan V. Revascularisation surgery for paediatric moyamoya: a review of the literature. Childs Nerv. Syst. 21, 358-364 (2005). (Pubitemid 41372157)
64. Zipfel GJ, Fox DJ Jr, Rivet DJ. Moyamoya disease in adults: the role of cerebral revascularization. Skull Base 15, 27-41 (2005).
65. Scott RM, Smith JL, Robertson RL, Madsen JR, Soriano SG, Rockoff MA. Long-term outcome in children with moyamoya syndrome after cranial revascularization by pial synangiosis. J. Neurosurg. 100(2 Suppl. Pediatrics), 142-149 (2004).
66. Bader-Meunier B, Verlhac S, Elmaleh- Berges M et al. Effect of transfusion therapy on cerebral vasculopathy in children with sickle-cell anemia. Haematologica 94, 123-126 (2009).
67. Fryer RH, Anderson RC, Chiriboga CA, Feldstein NA. Sickle cell anemia with moyamoya disease: outcomes after EDAS procedure. Pediatr. Neurol. 29, 124-130 (2003).
68. Hankinson TC, Bohman LE, Heyer G et al. Surgical treatment of moyamoya syndrome in patients with sickle cell anemia: outcome following encephaloduroarteriosynangiosis. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 1, 211-216 (2008). (Pubitemid 351346510)
69. Kirton A, deVeber G. Therapeutic approaches and advances in pediatric stroke. NeuroRx 3, 133-142 (2006). (Pubitemid 44081768)
70. deVeber G, Andrew M, Adams C et al. Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in children. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 417-423 (2001).
71. Huisman TA, Holzmann D, Martin E, Willi UV. Cerebral venous thrombosis in childhood. Eur. Radiol. 11, 1760-1765 (2001).
72. Davies RP, Slavotinek JP. Incidence of the empty d sign in computed tomography in the paediatric age group. Australas. Radiol. 38, 17-19 (1994).
73. Einhaupl KM, Villringer A, Meister W et al. Heparin treatment in sinus venous thrombosis. Lancet 338, 597-600 (1991).
74. de Bruijn SF, Stam J. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of anticoagulant treatment with low-molecular-weight heparin for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Stroke 30, 484-488 (1999). (Pubitemid 29115380)
75. Stam J, de Bruijn SF, deVeber G. Anticoagulation for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. CD002005 (2002).
76. deVeber G, Chan A, Monagle P et al. Anticoagulation therapy in pediatric patients with sinovenous thrombosis: a cohort study. Arch. Neurol. 55, 1533-1537 (1998).
77. Barnes C, Newall F, Furmedge J, Mackay M, Monagle P. Cerebral sinus venous thrombosis in children. J. Paediatr. Child Health 40, 53-55 (2004). (Pubitemid 38333597)
78. Johnson MC, Parkerson N, Ward S, de Alarcon PA. Pediatric sinovenous thrombosis. J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 25, 312-315 (2003).
79. Sebire G, Tabarki B, Saunders DE et al. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in children: risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and outcome. Brain 128, 477-489 (2005). (Pubitemid 40380184)
80. Kenet G, Kirkham F, Niederstadt T et al. Risk factors for recurrent venous thromboembolism in the European collaborative paediatric database on cerebral venous thrombosis: a multicentre cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 6, 595-603 (2007). (Pubitemid 46921043)
81. International Paediatric Stroke Study Consortium recommendations on management of stroke www.sickkids.on.ca/cstrokestudy (Accessed 14 July 2008)