The predictive validity of a gender-responsive needs assessment

Crime and Delinquency

Volumn 55, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 550-585

  Salisbury, Emily J ^a   van Voorhis, Patricia ^b   Spiropoulos, Georgia V ^c  

^a PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI   (United States)

^c CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Gender responsive; Risk needs assessment; Women offenders

Indexed keywords

EID: 70349274088     PISSN: 00111287     EISSN: 1552387X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0011128707308102     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. Aguilar, R.J., & Nightingale, N.N. (1994). The impact of specific battering experiences on the self-esteem of abused women. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 35-45.
2. American Association of Correctional Psychologists Standards Committee. (2000). Standards for psychology services in jails, prisons, and correctional facilities and agencies. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 433-493.
3. American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 47, 1597-1611.
4. Andrews, D.A. (1983). Assessment of outcome in correctional samples. In M. J. Lambert, E. R. Christensen, & S. S. DeJulio (Eds.), Assessment of psychotherapy outcome (pp. 160-201). New York: Wiley.
5. Andrews, D.A., & Bonta, J. (1995). Level of Service Inventory-Revised. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
6. Andrews, D.A., & Bonta, J. (2003). The psychology of criminal conduct (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
7. Andrews, D.A., Bonta, J., & Hoge, R.D. (1990). Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17, 19-52.
8. Andrews, D.A., Dowden, C., & Rettinger, L.J. (2001). Special populations within corrections. In J. A. Winterdyck (Ed.), Corrections in Canada: Social reactions to crime (pp. 170-212). Toronto: Prentice Hall.
9. Andrews, D.A., Zinger, I., Hoge, R.D., Bonta, J., Gendreau, P., & Cullen, F.T. (1990). Does correctional treatment work? A clinically-relevant and psychologically-informed meta-analysis. Criminology, 28, 369-404.
10. Antonowicz, D., & Ross, R. (1994). Essential components of successful rehabilitation programs for offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 38, 97-104.
11. Avison, W., Turner, R., & Noh, S. (1986). Screening for problem parenting: Preliminary evidence on a promising instrument. Child Abuse & Neglect, 10, 157-170.
12. Baunach, P.J. (1985). Mothers in prison. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
13. Beattie, M. (1987). Codependent no more. New York: Harper/Hazelden.
14. Belknap, J., Fisher, B., & Cullen, F.T. (1999). The development of a comprehensive measure of the sexual victimization of college women. Violence Against Women, 5, 185-214.
15. Belknap, J., & Holsinger, K. (2006). The gendered nature of risk factors for delinquency. Feminist Criminology, 1, 48-71.
16. Benda, B.B. (2005). Gender differences in life-course theory of recidivism: A survival analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 325-342.
17. Bepko, C., & Krestan, J. (1985). The responsibility trap: A blueprint for treating the alcoholic family. New York: Macmillan.
18. Berman, J. (2005). Women offender transition and reentry: Gender responsive approaches to transitioning women offenders from prison to the community. Washington, DC: USDOJ, National Institute of Corrections.
19. Blanchette, K. (1996). The relationship between criminal history, mental disorder, and recidivism among federally sentenced female offenders. Unpublished master's thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
20. Blanchette, K. (2004). Revisiting effective classification strategies for women offenders in Canada. Feminism & Psychology, 14, 231-236.
21. Blanchette, K. (2005). Field-test of a gender-informed security reclassification scale for female offenders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
22. Blanchette, K., & Brown, S.L. (2006). The assessment and treatment of women offenders: An integrative perspective. Chichester: Wiley.
23. Blanchette, K., & Motiuk, L.L. (1995). Female offender risk assessment: The case management strategies approach. Poster session presented at the Annual Convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
24. Bloom, B., Owen, B., & Covington, S. (2003). Gender-responsive strategies: Research practice and guiding principles for women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
25. Bloom, B., Owen, B., & Covington, S. (2005). Gender-responsive strategies for women offenders: A summary of research, practice, and guiding principles for women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
26. Blume, S. (1997). Women: Clinical aspects. In J. Lowinson et al. (Eds.), Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook (pp. 645-654). Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins.
27. Bonta, J. (1989). Native inmates: Institutional responses, risks, and needs. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 31, 49-62.
28. Bonta, J. (1996). Risk-needs assessment and treatment. In A. T. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply (pp. 18-32). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29. Bonta, J., & Motiuk, L.L. (1987). The diversion of incarcerated offenders to correctional halfway houses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 24, 302-323.
30. Bonta, J., & Motiuk, L.L. (1990). Classification to correctional halfway houses: A quasi-experimental evaluation. Criminology, 28, 497-506.
31. Bonta, J., & Motiuk, L.L. (1992). Inmate classification. Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 343-353.
32. Bonta, J., Pang, B., & Wallace-Capretta, S. (1995). Predictors of recidivism among incarcerated female offenders. The Prison Journal, 75, 277-294.
33. Bonta, J., Wallace-Capretta, S., & Rooney, J. (2000). A quasi-experimental evaluation of an intensive rehabilitation supervision program. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 312-329.
34. Brennan, T. (1998). Institutional classification of females: Problems and some proposals for reform. In R. T. Zaplin (Ed.), Female offenders: Critical perspectives and effective interventions (pp. 179-204). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
35. Brennan, T., & Austin, J. (1997). Women in jail: Classification issues. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
36. Brown, S.L., & Motiuk, L.L. (2005). The Dynamic Factor Identification and Analysis (DFIA) component of the Offender Intake Assessment (OIA) process: A meta-analytic, psychometric, and consultative review (Research Report No. R-164). Ottawa, Ontario: Correctional Service Canada.
37. Browne, A., Miller, B., & Maguin, E. (1999). Prevalence and severity of lifetime physical and sexual victimization among incarcerated women. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 22, 301-322.
38. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1999). Special report: Women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
39. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2005). Prisoners in 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
40. Campbell, D., Campbell, J., King, C., Parker, B., & Ryan, J. (1994). The reliability and factor structure of the Index of Spouse Abuse with African-American women. Violence and Victims, 9, 259-274.
41. Carp, S.V., & Schade, L. (1992, August). Tailoring facility programming to suit female offender's needs. Corrections Today, pp. 154-158.
42. Cascardi, M., & O'Leary, K.D. (1992). Depressive symptomatology, self-esteem, and self-blame in battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 7, 249-259.
43. Case, P., & Fasenfest, D. (2004). Expectations for opportunities following prison education: A discussion of race and gender. Journal of Correctional Education, 55, 24-39.
44. Chandler, S.M., & Kassebaum, G. (1994). Drug-alcohol dependence of women prisoners in Hawaii. Affilia, 9, 157-170.
45. Chesney-Lind, M. (1997). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
46. Chesney-Lind, M. (2000). What to do about girls? Thinking about programs for young women. In M. McMahon (Ed.), Assessment to assistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp. 139-170). Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.
47. Clark, J. (1995). The impact of the prison environment on mothers. The Prison Journal, 75, 306-329.
48. Clements, C.M., McKee, J., & Jones, S. (1984). Offender needs assessments: Models and approaches. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
49. Clements, C.M., Ogle, R., & Sabourin, C.M. (2005). Perceived control and emotional status in abusive college student relationships: An exploration of gender differences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1058-1077.
50. Clements, C.M., Sabourin, C.M., & Spiby, L. (2004). Dysphoria and hopelessness following battering: The role of perceived control, coping, and self-esteem. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 25-36.
51. Coleman, F.L. (1997). Stalking behavior and the cycle of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 420-432.
52. Coulson, G., Ilacqua, G., Nutbrown, V., Giulekas, D., & Cudjoe, F. (1996). Predictive utility of the LSI for incarcerated female offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 427-439.
53. Covington, S. (1998). The relational theory of women's psychological development: Implications for the criminal justice system. In R. T. Zaplin (Ed.), Female offenders: Critical perspectives and effective interventions (pp. 113-128). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
54. Crowley, J.D., & Dill, D. (1992). Silencing the Self scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 97-106.
55. Cullen, F.T., Fisher, B.S., & Applegate, B.K. (2000). Public opinion about punishment and corrections. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 27, pp. 1-79). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
56. Dahlberg, L., Toal, S., & Behrens, C. (1998). Measuring violence-related attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors among youth. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
57. Daly, K. (1992). Women's pathways to felony court: Feminist theories of lawbreaking and problems of representation. Southern California Review of Law and Women's Studies, 2, 11-52.
58. Daly, K. (1994). Gender, crime, and punishment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
59. Dowden, C., & Andrews, D.A. (1999). What works for female offenders: A meta-analytic review. Crime & Delinquency, 45, 438-452.
60. Enos, S. (2001). Mothering from the inside: Parenting in a women's prison. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
61. Farr, K.A., (2000). Classification for female inmates: Moving forward. Crime & Delinquency, 46, 3-17.
62. Feeley, M.M., & Simon, J. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology, 30, 449-474.
63. Ferraro, K.J., & Moe, A.M. (2003). Mothering, crime, and incarceration. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 32, 9-40.
64. Fischer, J., Spann, L., & Crawford, D. (1991). Measuring codependency. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 8, 87-99.
65. Fowler, L.T. (1993). What classification for women? In Classification: A tool for managing today's offenders. Laurel, MD: American Correctional Association.
66. Funk, S.J. (1999). Risk assessment for juveniles on probation: A focus on gender. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26, 44-68.
67. Garrett, C. (1985). Effects of residential treatment on adjudicated delinquents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 22, 287-308.
68. Gendreau, P. (1996). The principles of effective intervention with offenders. In A. T. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply (pp. 117-130). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
69. Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34, 575-607.
70. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
71. Giordano, P.C., Deines, J.A., & Cernkovich, S.A. (2006). In and out of crime: A life-course perspective on girls' delinquency. In K. Heimer & C. Kruttschnitt (Eds.), Gender and crime: Patterns in victimization and offending (pp. 17-40). New York: New York University Press.
72. Greene, S., Haney, C., & Hurtado, A. (2000). Cycles of pain: Risk factors in the lives of incarcerated mothers and their children. The Prison Journal, 80, 3-23.
73. Hannah-Moffat, K. (2004). Gendering risk at what cost: Negotiations of gender and risk in Canadian women's prisons. Feminism and Psychology, 14, 243-249.
74. Hardyman, P.L., & Van Voorhis, P. (2004). Developing gender-specific classification systems for women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
75. Harer, M., & Langan, N. (2001). Gender differences in predictors of prison violence: Assessing the predictive validity of a risk classification system. Crime and Delinquency, 47, 513-536.
76. Hoffman, P. (1994). Twenty years of operational use of a risk prediction instrument: The United States Parole Commission's Salient Factor Score. Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, 477-494.
77. Holsinger, A.M., Lowenkamp, C.T., & Latessa, E.J. (2003). Ethnicity, gender, and the Level of Service Inventory- Revised. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 309-320.
78. Holsinger, K., Belknap, J., & Sutherland, J. (1999, November). Assessing the gender specific program and service needs for adolescent females in the juvenile justice system. Paper presented to the State of Ohio's Office of Criminal Justice Services.
79. Holtfreter, K., & Morash, M. (2003). The needs of women offenders: Implications for correctional programming. Women & Criminal Justice, 14, 137-160.
80. Houck, K.D.F., & Loper, A.B. (2002). The relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 548-558.
81. Hubbard, D.J., & Pratt, T.C. (2002). A meta-analysis of the predictors of delinquency among girls. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 34(3), 1-13.
82. Izzo, R., & Ross, R. (1990). Meta-analysis of rehabilitation programs for juvenile delinquents: A brief report. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17, 134-142.
83. Kampfner, C.J. (1995). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children of imprisoned mothers. In K. Gabel & D. Johnson (Eds.), Children of incarcerated parents (pp. 21-30). New York: Lexington.
84. Kaplan, A.G. (1984). The self in relation: Implications for depression in women (Publication No. 14). Wellesley, MA: Stone Center.
85. Kazura, K. (2001). Family programming for incarcerated parents: A needs assessment among inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32, 67-83.
86. Koons, B.A., Burrow, J.D., Morash, M., & Bynum, T. (1997). Expert and offender perceptions of program elements linked to successful outcomes for incarcerated women. Crime and Delinquency, 43, 515-532.
87. Kroner, D.G., & Mills, J.F. (2001). The accuracy of five risk appraisal instruments in predicting institutional misconduct and new convictions. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 471-489.
88. Larivière, M. (1999). The relationship between self-esteem, criminality, aggression, and violence: A meta-analysis. Unpublished comprehensive examination, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
89. Law, M. (2004). A longitudinal follow-up of federally sentenced women in the community: Assessing the predictive validity of the dynamic characteristics of the Community Intervention Scale. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario.
90. Law, M.A., Sullivan, S.M., & Goggin, C. (in press). Security classification measures for female offenders and predictors of female criminal conduct: A literature review. Ottawa, Ontario: Correctional Service Canada.
91. Lipsey, M. (1992). Juvenile delinquency treatment: A meta-analytic inquiry into the variability of effects. In T. Cook et al. (Eds.), Meta-analysis for explanation (pp. 83-127). New York: Russell Sage.
92. Lipsey, M., Chapman, G., & Landenberger, N. (2001). Cognitive-behavioral programs for offenders. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 578, 144-157.
93. Lipsey, M., & Wilson, D. (1998). Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders: A synthesis of research. In R. Loeber & D. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 313-345). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
94. Lösel, F. (1995). Increasing consensus in the evaluation of offender rehabilitation? Lessons from recent research synthesis. Psychology, Crime, & Law, 2, 19-39.
95. Loucks, A., & Zamble, E. (1999). Predictors of recidivism in serious female offenders: Canada searches for predictors common to both men and women. Corrections Today, 61, 26-31.
96. Lowenkamp, C.T., Holsinger, A.M., & Latessa, E.J. (2001). Risk/need assessment, offender classification, and the role of childhood abuse. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 543-563.
97. Lowenkamp, C.T., & Latessa, E.J. (2002). Evaluation of Ohio's community-based correctional facilities and halfway house programs. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati.
98. Lowenkamp, C.T., & Latessa, E.J. (2005). Increasing the effectiveness of correctional programming through the risk principle: Identifying offenders for residential placement. Criminology & Public Policy, 4, 263-290.
99. Lowenkamp, C.T., Latessa, E.J., & Holsinger, A.M. (2006). The risk principle in action: What have we learned from 13,676 offenders and 97 correctional programs? Crime & Delinquency, 52, 77-93.
100. McClellan, D.S., Farabee, D., & Crouch, B.M. (1997). Early victimization, drug use, and criminality: A comparison of male and female prisoners. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 455-476.
101. Miller, J.B. (1976). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press.
102. Miller, J.B., & Stiver, I.P. (1998). The healing connection: How women form relationships in therapy and life. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Centers for Women.
103. Millon, T. (1997). The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III Manual (2nd ed.). Minneapolis: National Computer Systems.
104. Morash, M., Bynum, T.S., & Koons, B.A. (1998). Women offenders: Programming needs and promising approaches. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
105. Motiuk, M.S., Motiuk, L.L., & Bonta, J. (1992). A comparison between self-report and interview-based inventories in offender classification. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 19, 143-159.
106. Murphy, C., & Hoover, S. (1999). Measuring emotional abuse in dating relationships as a multifactorial construct. Violence and Victims, 14, 39-53.
107. Northpointe Institute for Public Management. (1997). Correctional Offender Management Profile for Alternative Sentences. Traverse City, MI: Northpointe Institute for Public Management.
108. Olson, D.E., Alderden, M., & Lurigio, A.J. (2003). Men are from Mars, women are from Venus, but what role does gender play in probation recidivism? Justice Research and Policy, 5, 33-54.
109. Orava, T.A., McLeod, P.J., & Sharpe, D. (1996). Perceptions of control, depressive symptomatology, and self-esteem of women in transition from abusive relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 11, 167-186.
110. Owen, B. (1998). In the mix: Struggle and survival in a woman's prison. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
111. Owen, B., & Bloom, B. (1995). Profiling the needs of California's female prisoners: A needs assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
112. Pearson, F.S., Lipton, D.S., Cleland, C.M., & Yee, D.S. (2002). The effects of behavioral/cognitive-behavioral programs on recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 48, 476-496.
113. Peters, R.H., Strozier, A.L., Murrin, M.R., & Kearns, W.D. (1997). Treatment of substance abusing jail inmates: Examination of gender differences. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 14, 339-349.
114. Petersilia, J. (2003). When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.
115. Prendergast, M., Wellisch, J., & Falkin, G. (1995). Assessment of services for substance-abusing women offenders and correctional settings. The Prison Journal, 75, 240-256.
116. Reisig, M.D., Holtfreter, K., & Morash, M. (2006). Assessing recidivism risk across female pathways to crime. Justice Quarterly, 23, 384-405.
117. Resick, P.A. (1993). The psychological impact of rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 223-255.
118. Rettinger, J.L. (1998). A recidivism follow-up study investigating risk and need within a sample of provincially sentenced women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
119. Richie, B. (1996). The gendered entrapment of battered, Black women. London: Routledge.
120. Rodenberg, F., & Fantuzzo, J. (1993). The measure of wife abuse: Steps toward the development of a comprehensive assessment technique. Journal of Family Violence, 8, 203-228.
121. Roehling, P., & Gaumond, E. (1996). Reliability and validity of the Codependent Questionnaire. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 14, 85-95.
122. Rosenberg, M. (1979). The concept of self. New York: Basic Books.
123. Ross, T., Khashu, A., & Wamsley, M. (2004). Hard data on hard times: An empirical analysis of maternal incarceration, foster care, and visitation. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
124. Rumgay, J. (2004). Scripts for safer survival: Pathways out of female crime. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 43, 405-419.
125. Schram, P.J., & Morash, M. (2002). Evaluation of a life skills program for women inmates in Michigan. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 34, 47-70.
126. Shepard, M., & Campbell, J. (1992). The Abusive Behavior Inventory: A measure of psychological and physical abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 291-305.
127. Sherer, M., Maddus, J., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671.
128. Shields, I.W., & Simourd, D.J. (1991). Predicting predatory behavior in a population of incarcerated young offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 18, 180-194.
129. Siegel, J.A., & Williams, L.M. (2003). The relationship between child sexual abuse and female delinquency and crime: A prospective study. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 71-94.
130. Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women. (1990). Creating choices: The report of the Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women. Ottawa, ON: Ministry of the Solicitor General Canada.
131. Travis, J. (2005). But they all come back: Facing the challenges of prisoner reentry. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
132. Tuerk, E.H., & Loper, A.B. (2006). Contact between incarcerated mothers and their children: Assessing parenting stress. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 43, 23-43.
133. Van Voorhis, P. (2004). An overview of offender classification systems. In P. Van Voorhis, M. Braswell, & D. Lester (Eds.), Correctional counseling and rehabilitation (5th ed., pp.133-160). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
134. Van Voorhis, P., Pealer, J., Spiropoulos, G., & Sutherland, J. (2001). Validation of offender custody classification and needs assessment systems for incarcerated women offenders in the (Unidentified State) Department of Corrections. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
135. Van Voorhis, P., & Presser, L. (2001). Classification of women offenders: A national assessment of current practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
136. Van Voorhis, P., Salisbury, E. & Wright, E. (2006). Is there a bridge between What Works and Gender Responsive? Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, CA.
137. Washington State Institute for Public Policy. (2003). Washington's Offender Accountability Act: An analysis of the Department of Corrections risk assessment. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.
138. Widom, C.S. (1989). Child abuse, neglect, and violent criminal behavior. Criminology, 27, 251-271.
139. Williams, S.L., & Mickelson, K.D. (2004). The nexus of domestic violence and poverty. Violence Against Women, 10, 283-293.
140. Woititz, J. (1983). Adult children of alcoholics. Hollywood, FL: Health Communications.
141. Wormith, J.S. (1984). Attitude and behavior change of correctional clientele: A three year follow-up. Criminology, 23, 326-348.
142. Zlotnick, C., Johnson, D.M., & Kohn, R. (2006). Intimate partner violence and long-term psychosocial functioning in a national sample of American women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 262-275.