Banning of minarets: Addressing the validity of a controversial swiss popular initiative

Religion and Human Rights

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 135-153

  Stüssi, Marcel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LUCERNE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Ban; Jus cogens; Minarets; Popular initiatives; Switzerland

Indexed keywords

EID: 70249141605     PISSN: 1871031X     EISSN: 18710328     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/187103208X347376     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Thrasymachus, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition) Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 〈http://plato.stanford.edu/〉 accessed 4 April 2008.
2. The Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyIbid. 2008.
3. See Böckenförde Ernst-Wolfgang, Geschichte der Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie (Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2002) p. 97ff .
4. See Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, SR 101).
5. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Wiener Übereinkommen vom 23. Mai 1969 über das Recht der Verträge vom 6. Juni 1990, SR 0.111).
6. See Comment of International Law Commission, Y.B.I.L.C., 1966, II, pp. 247-248.
7. See the judgment of the Court in the case concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Merits), ICJ Reports (1986) p. 100-101, para. 190.
8. See Barcelona Traction case (Second Phase), ICJ Reports (1970) p. 304.
9. See Inter-American Commission of Human Rights in the case of Roach and Pinkerton, decision of 27 March 1987 (OAS General Secretariat) p. 33-36
10. See General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962, permanent sovereignty over natural resources, UNHRC Offi ce 〈http://www2. ohchr.org/english/law/resources.htm〉 accessed 10 April 2008.
11. See International Law Commission, Yearbook (1963), ii 187 at 198 (art 37), 211 (art 45), 216 (art 53);
12. See also Arnold Duncan McNair, Th e Law of Treaties (Hutchinson, Oxford 1989) pp. 213-218
13. See Federal Council, Official Comment (Botschaft betreff end den Beitritt der Schweiz zur Wiener Konvention von 1969 über das Recht der Verträge und zur Wiener Konvention von 1986 über das Recht der Vertrage zwischen Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, BBI 1989 II) pp. 782-783
14. Ibid.
15. See generally Federal Council, Official Comment (Botschaft über eine neue Bundesverfassung vom 20. November 1996, BBI 149 1996 Bd. I).
16. Ibid.
17. In 1994 the popular initiative 'against illegal migration' was the fi rst initiative ever to be held in clear contradiction of peremptory norms of international law. See Federal Council, offi cial comment (Botschaft betreff end der Eidgenössischen Volksinitiative 'gegen die illegale Einwanderung' vom 22. Juni 1994, BBl 1994 III 1486).
18. See Federal Supreme Court Decision (BGE 109 I b 64) p. 72.
19. Article 3 reads: 'torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment is prohibited'. See European Convention of Human Rights (Konvention zum Schutze der Menschenrechte und Grundfreiheiten, 4. November 1950, Inkrafttreten 28. November 1974, SR 0.101).
20. cArticle 3(2) reads: 'an extradition request is invalid, provided that a person is prosecuted just because of his or her race, religion, national or political world view, or if a person's situation is aggravated because of one of these grounds'. See European Convention on Extradition (Europäisches Auslieferungsübereinkommen of 13. Dezember 1957, Inkrafttreten 20. März 1967, SR 0.353.1).
21. See Federal Council, Official Comment (Botschaft betreff end den Beitritt der Schweiz zur Wiener Konvention von 1969 über das Recht der Verträge und zur Wiener Konvention von 1986 über das Recht der Vertrage zwischen Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, BBI 1989 II) p. 783.
22. See Federal Supreme Court Decisions (BGE 111 I b 138) p. 145; see also (BGE 113 I b 175) p. 178; and (BGE 113 I b 257) p. 273.
23. See Federal Act on International Assistance in Criminal Matters (Bundesgesetz über die Internationale Rechtshilfe in Strafsachen vom 20. März 1981, SR 351.1).
24. See Frédéric Burnand, 'Harsche Kritik an Attacken gegen das Völkerrecht', swissinfoch (Berne 14 August 2007) 〈http://www. swissinfo.ch〉 accessed 4 April 2008.
25. See Editorial Board composed of: Bernard Dutoit, Stephen V Berti., Pascal Pichonnaz, Anton K Schnyder., T Daniel hürer, and Hans Peter Walter, 'Volksinitiativen: Gefahren des Missbrauchs' (RDS 2007/I).
26. Volksinitiativen: Gefahren des Missbrauchs Ibid.
27. See Nay Giusep, 'Soll der Bund Volksinitiativen ungültig erklären, wenn sie gegen nicht zwingendes Völkerrecht verstossen?' (plädoyer 2007/3).
28. Soll der Bund Volksinitiativen ungültig erklären, wenn sie gegen nicht zwingendes Völkerrecht verstossen?Ibid.
29. See Robert Kolb, Th éorie du ius cogens international (Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 2001) p. 31ff .
30. See U.N.C.L.T., Off . Recs., First Session, pp. 258-259, para 75.
31. See the intervention of the representative of the former Czechoslovakia at the 781st meeting of the Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly (Twenty-fi fth session) in Maurizio Ragazzi, Th e Concept of International Obligations Erga Omnes (Oxford University Press, Oxford 1997) p. 49ff .
32. See e.g., Human Rights Committee, General Comment 22 of 30 July 1993 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.4); and, General Comment 24 of 4 November 1994 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6).
33. Switzerland officially declared under Article 41 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966 that it recognizes the competence of the Human Rights Committee to receive and consider communications in case obligations under the Covenant are not fulfi lled. It seems also necessary to point out that such communications must not be confused with court decisions as they are legally non-binding. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Internationale Pakt über bürgerliche und politische Rechte vom 16. Dezember 1966, Inkrafttreten 18. September 1992, SR 0.103.2, AS 1993 750).
34. Ibid.
35. See Henry J Steiner., International Human Rights in Context: law, politics, morals: text and materials, 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000) p. 731;
36. For a detailed analysis on the relevance of general comments see Wolfrum Rüdinger and Röben Volker (eds), Developments of International Law in Treaty Making (Springer, Berlin 2005) p. 560ff .
37. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 24 of 4 November 1994 (CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.6).
38. Ibid. para. 8.
39. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 22 of 30 July 1993 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.4) para. 8.
40. Ibid.
41. In Switzerland there is no wall of separation between church and state except as it regards the Cantons of Geneva and Neuchatel. See Christoph Winzeler, Einführung in das Religionsverfassungsrecht der Schweiz, (Schulthess, Zürich, Basel, Genf, 2005) p. 117ff .
42. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 22 of 30 July 1993 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.4) para. 9.
43. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Internationale Pakt über bürgerliche und politische Rechte vom 16. Dezember 1966, Inkrafttreten 18. September 1992, SR 0.103.2, AS 1993 750) art. 18.
44. Ibid., art. 27.
45. Ibid., art. 2(1), 3, 26.
46. Provided that the right to build minarets is interpreted as an irreducible core of the rights discussed.
47. See Henry J Steiner., International Human Rights in Context: law, politics, morals: text and materials, 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000) p. 999ff .
48. For a detailed discussion on this matter see Dominic McGoldrick, Th e Human Rights Committee: its role in the development of the international covenant on civil and political rights (Clarendon Press, Oxford 2001) p. 14.
49. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Internationale Pakt über bürgerliche und politische Rechte vom 16. Dezember 1966, Inkrafttreten 18. September 1992, SR 0.103.2, AS 1993 750) art. 1.
50. See Sarah Joseph, Jenny Schultz, and Melissa Castan, Th e International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: cases, materials, and commentary (Oxford University Press, New York 2000) p. 101;
51. See also Sarah Joseph, 'Resolving Confl icting Claims of Territorial Sovereignty and External Self-Determination', Part 1 (1999) 3(1)
52. See Louis Henkin, Th e International Bill of Rights: Th e Universal Declaration and the Covenants in International enforcement of human rights: reports submitted to the Colloquium of the International Association of Legal Science, Heidelberg, 28-30 August 1985 (Springer, Berlin 1987) p. 10.
53. See Federal Court Decision (BGE 99 Ib 39) p. 41.
54. Ulrich Häfelin, and Walter Haller, Schweizerisches Bundesstaatsrecht: die neue Bundesverfassung 6 ed. (Schulthess, Zürich 2005) p. 129.
55. See Regina Kiener and Walter Kälin, Grundrechte, (Schultess, Bern 2007) p. 276.
56. See Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, Inkrafttreten 1. Januar 2000, SR 101) art. 15(2).
57. Ibid., art. 8.
58. The Federal Constitution does not expressly protect the rights of minorities. Implied protection may, for instance, arise from Articles 7 and 10 of the Constitution. See Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, Inkrafttreten 1. January 2000, SR 101).
59. Th e Federal Supreme Court upheld the ruling of the lower court but did not decide over the material content of constitutional rights. Th e claim to build minarets was challenged in respect to Swiss planning laws only. See Federal Court Decision (BGE 1P.26/2007) 〈http://jumpcgi.bger.ch/〉 accessed 12 April 2008.
60. Interview with Paul Richli, Professor of Public Law, Faculty of Law, University of Lucerne (Lucerne 3 April 2008).
61. (Author's translation) " States are, at any time, empowered to modify their designs and to revise international rules. As a result, they can not be bound by mandatory provisions of international law which prohibit any development. The reality of jus cogens is therefore doubtful, and the references given by the Federal Council are far from being e xistent. " See Etienne Grisel, Initiative et référendum populaires: Traité de la démocratie semi-directe en droit suisse, (3rd edn, Staempfl i, Berne 2004) p. 258.
62. For a detailed analysis on the actual scope of the human rights in question see, for instance, Manfred Novak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR commentary (2nd rev. ed., N.P. Engel, Kehl, 2005) p. 406ff .
63. See Sarah Joseph, Jenny Schultz, and Melissa Castan, Th e International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: cases, materials, and commentary (Oxford University Press, New York 2000) p. 599.
64. See Offi ce of the United Nations Human Rights Commissioner, 'Declarations and Reservations' 〈http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/ ratification/4-1.htm〉 accessed 8 April 2008.
65. Ibid.
66. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 24 of 4 November 1994 (CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.6) para. 4.
67. Ibid.
68. See Liesbeth Lijnzaad, Reservations to UN-Human Rights Treaties: ratify and ruin? Martinus Nijhoff , Dordrecht 1995) p. 185-6;
69. Raymond Higgins, 'Derogations Under Human Rights Treaties', (1976) 48th British Yearbook of International Law, 281-320;
70. See also, 'The Development of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', (1981) Th e International Bill of Rights, Louise Henking, (ed.), p. 32-71.
71. See Egon Schwelb, Th e International Covenants on Human Rights, in: Eide Asbjorn, Schou August, International Protection of Human Rights, (Kelsvrov, Stockholm 1968) p. 144;
72. See also Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 24 of 4 November 1994 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6) para. 4.
73. See Bernhard Graefrath, Menschenrechten und internationale Kooperation usw., (Berlin 1988) p. 69-85.
74. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Wiener Übereinkommen vom 23. Mai 1969 über das Recht der Verträge, Inkrafttreten 6. Juni 1990, SR 0111).
75. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Internationale Pakt über bürgerliche und politische Rechte vom 16. Dezember 1966, Inkrafttreten 18. September 1992, SR 0.103.2, AS 1993 750) Art. 4(1) and 4(2).
76. See Liesbeth Lijnzaad, Reservations to UN-Human Rights Treaties: ratify and ruin? (Martinus Nijhoff , Dordrecht, 1995) p. 187.
77. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 24 of 4 November 1994 (CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.6) para 8.
78. Ibid., para 9.
79. Arguably, this is only the case if the building of a minaret was seen as an irreducible core of the rights discussed. See Agnes Winkler, Zulässigkeit und Rechtswirkungen von Vorbehalten nach der Wiener Vertragsrechtskonvention (Kovac, Hamburg 2007) p. 93.
80. See Sarah Joseph, Jenny Schultz, and Melissa Castan, Th e International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: cases, materials, and commentary (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000) p. 622.
81. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Wiener Übereinkommen vom 23. Mai 1969 über das Recht der Verträge, Inkrafttreten 6. Juni 1990, SR 0111).
82. See Human Rights Committee, General Comment Nr. 26 of 8 December 1997 (CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.8) para 2.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid., para. 5.
85. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Wiener Übereinkommen vom 23. Mai 1969 über das Recht der Verträge, Inkrafttreten 6. Juni 1990, SR 0111).
86. See Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (I.C.J. Reports 1989) p. 15ff .
87. See Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, SR 101) art. 5(4).
88. See Statute of the International Court of Justice (Statut des Internationalen Gerichtshofs vom 26. Juni 1945, Inkrafttreten 28. Juli 1948, 0.193.501) art 36(1); See also the detailed commentary of Zimmermann Andreas and others, Th e Statute of the International Court of Justice (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006) p. 162.
89. See United Nations Charter, (Charta der Vereinten Nationen vom 26. Juni 1945, Inkrafttreten 10. September 2002, SR 0.120) art. 94(2); See also Andreas Zimmermann and others, Th e Statute of the International Court of Justice (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006) p. 171.
90. See Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, SR 101) art. 141(d)(1).
91. See Editorial Board composed of: Bernard Dutoit, Stephen V. Berti, Pascal Pichonnaz, Anton K. Schnyder, Daniel Th ürer, and Hans Peter Walter, 'Volksinitiativen: Gefahren des Missbrauchs' (RDS 2007/I).
92. See Preamble of the Swiss Federal Constitution (Bundesverfassung der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft vom 18. April 1999, SR 101).
93. Although Swiss citizens are sovereign, they must respect international human rights law.
94. See Farah Mihlar Ahamed, Women Living Under Muslim Laws, 'UN: Asma Jahangir, UN Special Rapporteur on Religious Freedom or Belief ' 〈http://www.wluml.org〉 accessed 8 April 2008.
95. Caused by an unjust distribution of goods.
96. See Hebert Kelman, 'Interactive Problem Solving as a Metaphor for International Confl ict Resolutions': Lessons for the Policy Process, Peace and Confl ict (Journal of Peace Psychology, 1999) p. 201-218.
97. See Günter Bierbrauer, Interkulturelles Verhandeln (F. Haft v. Schlieff en (Hg.), Handbuch Mediation, München, 2002) p. 266-288.
98. See Melville Jean Herskovits, Man and His Works: Th e Science of Cultural Anthropology (New York 1948).
99. Th is is believed to be to the unique preserve of humans.
100. See Ernest Becker, Dynamik des Todes, Die Überwindung der Todesfurcht-Ursprung der Kultur (Freiburg 1976).
101. See Sheldon Solomon, Jeff Greenberg and Tom Pyszczynski, A Terror Management Th eory of Social Behaviour (Th e Psychological Functions of Self-Esteem and Cultural Wold Views, Mark P. Zanna. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1991) p. 93-159.
102. See generally Günter Bierbrauer, Triebe, Instinkte, Kultur und Todesangst (Osnabrücker Jahrbuch Frieden und Wissenschaft, Göttingen, Universität Osnabrück 2003) p. 137-146.
103. Anerkennung, German for 'in acceptance', see generally Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts of 1820 (Helmut Reichelt, Ullstein-Buch, Frankfurt am Main 1972).
104. See generally Immanuel Kant, Essay Beantwortung der Frage: 'Wasist Aufklärung' (Berlinische Monatsschrift, Johann Erich Biester und Friedrich Gedike, Berlin 1784).