Evolving Visions of Waterfront Development in Postindustrial Philadelphia: The Formative Role of Elite Ideologies

Journal of Planning History

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 295-326

  McGovern, Stephen J ^a  

^a New York University School of Law ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

ideology; mobilization; political culture; waterfront development

Indexed keywords

EID: 69849117750     PISSN: 15385132     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1538513208315756     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. For an overview of efforts by American cities to revitalize their waterfronts, see Ann Breen and Dick Rigby, Waterfronts: Cities Reclaim Their Edge (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994); Douglas M. Wrenn, Urban Waterfront Development (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1983).
2. Martin L. Millspaugh, “Waterfronts as Catalysts for Renewal,” in Waterfronts in Postindustrial Cities, ed. Richard Marshall (London: Spon Press, 2001); Patrick Malone, ed., City, Capital, and Water (London: Routledge, 1996).
3. William P. Macht, “Waterplace Park and Providence Place,” in Remaking the Urban Waterfront, ed. Bonnie Fisher et al. (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 2004); David L. A. Gordon, Battery Park City: Politics and Planning on the New York Riverfront ( New York: Routledge, 1998).
4. Anne Frej, “Charleston Waterfront Park,” in Remaking the Urban Waterfront, ed. Bonnie Fisher et al. (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 2004); Richard Marshall, ed., Waterfronts in Postindustrial Cities ( London: Spon Press, 2001).
5. Clarence N. Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence : University Press of Kansas, 1989 ); Stephen L. Elkin, City and Regime in the American Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
6. John Logan and Harvey Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1987).
7. Robert Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961); Jeffrey M. Berry, Kent E. Portney, and Ken Thomson, The Rebirth of Urban Democracy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1993).
8. David Harvey, The Urbanization of Capital ( Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985); Roger Friedland and Donald Palmer, “Park Place and Main Street: Business and the Urban Power Structure,” Annual Review of Sociology 10 (1984): 393-416.
9. Paul E. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
10. Stephen J. McGovern, The Politics of Downtown Development: Dynamic Political Cultures in San Francisco and Washington, D.C. ( Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Barbara Ferman, Challenging the Growth Machine (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Richard DeLeon, Left Coast City (Lawrence : University Press of Kansas, 1992 ); and Donald L. Rosdil, “The Context of Radical Populism in U.S. Cities: A Comparative Analysis,” Journal of Urban Affairs 13 (1991): 77-96.
11. Carl Abbott, “Five Strategies for Downtown: Policy Discourse and Planning Since 1943,” Journal of Policy History 5, no. 1 (1993): 5-27.
12. Leonie Sandercock and Kim Dovey, “Pleasure, Politics, and the ‘Public Interest’: Melbourne's Riverscape Revitalization,” Journal of American Planning Association 68, no. 2 (2002): 151-64.
13. Despite substantial public investment to create and improve Penn's Landing dating to 1956, private investment has been limited to a high-rise hotel and adjacent parking garage.
14. For a survey of how political theorists dating back to Aristotle and more recent scholars such as Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, Daniel Elazar, and Aaron Wildavsky have developed typologies of political systems and political cultures through similar variables, see McGovern, The Politics of Downtown Development.
15. Sam Bass Warner, The Privatist City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968); Timothy Barnekov, Robin Boyle, and Daniel Rich, Privatism and Urban Policy in Britain and the United States (New York : Oxford University Press, 1989).
16. Pierre Clavel and Wim Wiewel, eds., Harold Washington and the Neighborhoods: Progressive City Government in Chicago, 1983-1987 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991); Peter Dreier, “Ray Flynn's Legacy: American Cities and the Progressive Agenda,” National Civic Review (Fall 1993): 380-403; Peter Dreier, Regina Freer, Robert Gottlieb, and Mark Vallianatos, “Movement Mayor: Can Antonio Villaraigosa Change Los Angeles?” Dissent (Summer 2006), http://www.dissent-magazine.org/article/?article=656 (accessed February 12, 2008); Norman Krumholz, “A Retrospective View of Equity Planning: Cleveland, 1969-1979,” Journal of the American Planning Association 48, no. 4 (1982): 163-83.
17. Stanley Schultz and Clay McShane, “To Engineer the Metropolis,” Journal of American History 65 (September 1978): 398-402; William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York ( New York: Alfred Knopf, 1974); and Jeffrey R. Henig and Wilbur C. Rich, eds., Mayors in the Middle: Politics, Race, and Mayoral Control of Urban Schools (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).
18. Jane Jacobs, Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Vintage Books, 1961); Charles Lindblom, “The Science of Muddling Through,” Public Administration Review 19 (1959): 79-88; Stephen Goldsmith, The Twenty-First Century City: Resurrecting Urban America (Washington, DC : Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1997 ); and Stephen J. McGovern, “Ideology, Consciousness, and Inner-City Redevelopment: The Case of Stephen Goldsmith's Indianapolis,” Journal of Urban Affairs 25, no. 1 (2003): 1-25.
19. Billy G. Smith, The “Lower Sort”: Philadelphia's Laboring People, 1750-1800 ( Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990); Warner, The Privatist City; “A Master Plan for Philadelphia's Downtown Waterfront,” prepared by Geddes, Brecher, Qualls, and Cunningham, Department of Commerce (April 16, 1963).
20. By 1972, OPDC was credited with overseeing development projects in Center City valued at more than $2.5 billion. William J. Nazzaro, “Old Philadelphia Corp. Sponsors ‘Billion-Dollar’ Tour,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 19, 1972.
21. Guian A. McKee, “Blue Sky Boys, Professional Citizens, and Knights-in-Shining-Money: Philadelphia's Penn Center Project and the Constraints of Private Development, “ Journal of Planning History 6 (2007): 48-80; Carolyn T. Adams, David Bartelt, David Elesh, Ira Goldstein, Nancy Kleniewski, and William Yancey, Philadelphia: Neighborhoods, Division, and Conflict in a Postindustrial City (Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 1991).
22. William A. Forsythe, “$27 Million Port Buildup Program to Include New Cargo Terminal,” Philadelphia Bulletin, February 9, 1965.
23. Personal interview with Edmund N. Bacon, Executive Director, Philadelphia City Planning Commission, 1949-1970, April 1, 2003.
24. Telephone interview with Robert Geddes, principal author, “A Master Plan for Philadelphia's Downtown Waterfront” (1963), March 16, 2007.
25. “Nautical Mile,” Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine, May 14, 1961.
26. Geddes felt that “the greatest recreational impact of the project. will be in the accommodation of strollers along the Promenade and Embarcadero. These vantage points and the interconnecting plazas can give this major audience a clear picture of what the River and Port have meant and can mean to the City, Region and Country. They will serve, in fact, to return this historic waterfront to the community,” Geddes plan, p. 31.
27. When William Penn founded Philadelphia in 1682, his ship, Welcome, landed at a point on the Delaware River that eventually came to be called Penn's Landing.
28. Geddes plan, pp. 23-31.
29. That managerial approach to waterfront development continued through the 1960s under Mayor Dilworth's successor, James Tate (1964-1972), who was not a reformer himself but was happy to turn over responsibility for the Penn's Landing project to the Commerce Department and the OPDC.
30. “A Showcase on the Delaware,” New York Herald Tribune, November 25, 1962.
31. “Razing of 3 Piers Starts $85 Million Port Renewal,” Philadelphia Bulletin, January 25, 1962; Ward Welsh, “Penn's Landing Work Set,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 17, 1966.
32. “Mud Broken to Launch Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, October 31, 1967.
33. Mike Clark, “Penn's Landing Site Ready for Project After 8-Year Study,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 1, 1970; Donald Janson, “Penn's Landing Site Is Planned as a Tourist Center,” The New York Times, May 16, 1971.
34. “Nonprofit Unit Will Develop Penn Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 9, 1970; personal interview, Stanhope Browne, Chair, Penn's Landing Corporation, 1981-1997, March 25, 2003.
35. Telephone interview with Stanhope Browne, March 16, 2007; Clark, “Penn's Landing Site.”
36. Paula Herbut, “Commercial-Historical Development Proposed along Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 7, 1971.
37. Janson, “ Penn's Landing Site” Gene Harris, “Developer Sought for Penn's Landing Area, “ Philadelphia Bulletin, November 10, 1972.
38. Paula Herbut, “Commercial-Historical Development.”
39. “Penn's Landing Ownership Is Disputed,” Philadelphia Bulletin, July 23, 1972.
40. Browne interview, 2007.
41. Paula Herbut, “Plans Approved for Development of 24.8 Acres Along Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 21, 1971; Eugene L. Meyer, “City Revamps Its Plans for Penn's Landing Project,” Philadelphia Bulletin, July 8, 1967.
42. Planners anticipated that development at Penn's Landing under the new plan would produce $1.2 million per year in rental income and $2.3 million per year in real estate and wage taxes for the city and an additional $2.4 million per year for the state (see Harris, “Developer Sought for Penn's Landing Area”), a substantial increase over what the Geddes plan was expected to yield (Browne interview, 2007).
43. “Penn's Landing Ownership,” 1972.
44. Personal interview, Bill Kingsley, Old City Civic Association, March 26, 2003; Browne interview, 2003.
45. “Developer Chosen for Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, October 5, 1973.
46. Lou Antosh and Raymond A. Berens, “Penn's Landing Project Bogged Down,” Philadelphia Bulletin, January 6, 1974.
47. Trudy Prokop, “Old Phila. to Ask Bids on Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 11, 1974.
48. Nessa Forman, “The Delaware Riverfront Never Looked So Good, “ Philadelphia Bulletin, July 23, 1976.
49. David Runkel, “City Drops Developer for Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 13, 1977.
50. John T. Gillespie, “Penn's Landing Still Awaits Anchoring by Big Firm,” Philadelphia Bulletin, October 22, 1978; Thomas Hine, “Penn's Landing: The Last Step Is the Toughest, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, June 4, 1978.
51. Thomas Hine, “New Plan Readied for Riverfront,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 29, 1980; Raymond Berens, “Penn's Landing: Area Developer Wants Chance,” Philadelphia Bulletin, July 6, 1980.
52. Personal interview, Richard Doran, director, Department of Commerce, Philadelphia, 1980-1984, April 1, 2003.
53. Jack Smyth, “Penn's Landing Developer's Plan Criticized by Doran,” Philadelphia Bulletin, September 5, 1980.
54. Doran interview, 2003.
55. Philadelphia Bulletin
56. Walter F. Naedele, “Green Scraps Port Plan for Trade Center, “ Philadelphia Bulletin, October 19, 1980.
57. For instance, Doran commented that it had been a mistake not to present the Blumenfeld plan to civic groups in Society Hill and Queen Village because “if you don't have those people in at the beginning, you're going to spend years talking to them in court.” Naedele, “Green Scraps Port Plan.”
58. Browne interview, 2003; Thomas Hine, “Penn's Landing Plan Scaled Down,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 6, 1981. Doran acknowledged that the recent success of the festival marketplace in Baltimore's Inner Harbor had influenced his thinking. Doran interview, 2003.
59. Jack Smyth, “More Public Use of Penn's Landing Urged,” Philadelphia Bulletin, May 26, 1981.
60. “Architect Hired to Design New Look for Penn's Landing Area, “ Philadelphia Bulletin, July 16, 1981.
61. Personal interview, Craig Schelter, Executive Director, Philadelphia City Planning Commission, 1981-1983, and Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation, 1983-2002, April 4, 2003; Thomas Hine, “Presenting the New Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 29, 1982; Roger Cohn, “Waterfront Boosters See a Bright Omen in Great Plaza's Opening,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 22, 1986.
62. Schelter interview, 2003.
63. Gregory R. Byrnes, “Developer Backs Out of Penn's Landing Plan,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 25, 1984; Gregory R. Byrnes, “Waterfront Development Set to Begin,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 17, 1983.
64. Byrnes, “ Waterfront Development Set to Begin.”
65. Doran interview, 2003; Gregory R. Byrnes, “Developer Named for Waterfront: Rouse Wins Bid on Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 1985.
66. Susan Warner, “Rouse Halts His Plan for Waterfront,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 18, 1989.
67. Susan Warner, “Developer Chosen for Riverfront,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 2, 1989; Susan Warner, “New Team Comes Aboard for Penn's Landing Job,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 25, 1991.
68. Personal interview, Denise Scott-Brown, Venturi Scott-Brown and Associates, April 4, 2003.
69. Personal interview, Alan Greenberger, architect, MGA Partners, and former president, American Institute of Architects, Philadelphia, April 11, 2003.
70. Personal interview, Inga Saffron, architecture critic, Philadelphia Inquirer, April 22, 2003. Saffron went on to comment: “The planning people, y'know, Rendell was horrible to. Y'know, he locked [Planning Director] Barbara Kaplan in her office and didn't let her come out. He didn't hire anybody. He lashed them to their desks. They were utterly miserable. He didn't let them plan anything. He made deals.”
71. Personal interview, Dominic Sabatini, President, Penn's Landing Corporation, April 22, 2003.
72. Sabatini interview, 2003.
73. Stephen J. McGovern, “Mayoral Leadership and Economic Development Policy: The Case of Ed Rendell's Philadelphia,” Policy and Politics 25, no. 2 (1997): 153-72.
74. David Johnston, “A Shifting Tide Along the River,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 14, 1993; Peter Nicholas, “Rendell Renews Effort to Get Riverboat Gambling Here,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 3, 1996.
75. Personal interview, James Cuorato, Director, Department of Commerce, Philadelphia, April 15, 2003.
76. Michael D. Beyard, Ray Braun, Herb McLaughlin, Patrick Philips, and Michael Rubin, Developing Urban Entertainment Centers (Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, 1998).
77. Schelter interview, 2003.
78. Simon DeBartolo was established in 1996 when the Simon Property Group Inc. of Indianapolis purchased the DeBartolo Realty Corp. of Youngstown, Ohio, for about $3 billion.
79. Cuorato interview, 2003.
80. Nathan Gorenstein, “$130 Million in Family Entertainment Planned for Penn's Landing Open Space,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 1997; Nathan Gorenstein, “Drawing Up a New City Complex,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 15, 1997.
81. Theresa Conroy, “Tourist Attraction: City to Unveil Waterfront Project,” Philadelphia Daily News, May 13, 1997.
82. Gorenstein, “$130 Million in Family Entertainment.”
83. Howard Goodman, “A Mecca in the Making,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 18, 1997.
84. Greenberger interview, 2003.
85. Personal interview, Chris Satullo, Editorial Page Editor, Philadelphia Inquirer, April 16, 2003.
86. Greenberger interview, 2003; Saffron interview, 2003.
87. Schelter interview, 2003.
88. Nathan Gorenstein, “Plan's Price Tag Grows,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 28, 1998; Henry J. Holcomb, “Officials Push to Finish Deal on Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 15, 2001.
89. Henry J. Holcomb, “Tourism Thwarted at Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 22, 2001.
90. Bob Fernandez, “Penn's Landing Deal Declared Dead,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 14, 2002.
91. The one minor exception took place during the administration of Mayor Wilson Goode, who appointed three citizens representing neighborhood civic associations to a developer search committee in 1989. This marked the first and only time that citizens from community-based organizations were directly involved in the city's planning process for Penn's Landing prior to 2003. Telephone interview, Roger Pritchard, Old City Civic Association, March 31, 2003.
92. Although some credit Street with holding the practice of comprehensive planning in higher regard than Rendell ever did, as one leading critic of the mayor put it, his behavior with respect to development at Penn's Landing “suggests a totally different mindset.” Personal interview, Harris Steinberg, Director, Penn Praxis, School of Design, University of Pennsylvania, April 9, 2003.
93. Personal interview, Richard Thom, activist, Old City Civic Association, March 26, 2003.
94. Scott Flander, “City Rolls Dice on Waterfront Again,” Philadelphia Daily News, November 10, 1997.
95. Personal interview, Judy Applebaum, president, Washington Square Civic Association, March 26, 2003.
96. Telephone interview, David O'Donnell, vice president, Queen Village Neighborhood Association, May 1, 2003.
97. Applebaum interview, 2003.
98. Personal interview, James Quilligan, president, River's Edge Civic Association, April 11, 2003; Stanhope Browne, the chair of the Penn's Landing Corporation from 1981 until 1997, asserted that meetings of the Penn's Landing Corporation only became closed to the public during the Street administration. Browne interview, 2007. See also, Marcia Gelbart and John Sullivan, “A Powerful Agency Does Its Work in the Dark,” Philadelphia Inquirer, December 18, 2005.
99. Satullo interview, 2003.
100. Applebaum interview, 2003.
101. Greenberger interview, 2003.
102. Personal interview, Malcolm Lazin, president, Society Hill Civic Association, March 21, 2003.
103. Given the wariness of neighborhood activists associated with the coalition-some warned against working with the Planning Commission for fear that it was tainted by local corruption-the vision of politics that most closely captures their attitudes and beliefs is populism. Populists value popular empowerment but are suspicious of big government. Applebaum interview, 2003.
104. Inga Saffron, “The Lost Waterfront,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 10, 2002.
105. Satullo interview, 2003.
106. Penn Praxis is a clinical consulting practice at Penn's School of Design, which coordinates faculty and student collaboration in projects throughout the Philadelphia area related to architecture, landscape architecture, planning, historic preservation, and fine arts. The office was created by the university's board of trustees in 2001, and Harris Steinberg was hired as its director in 2002.
107. Inga Saffron, “Man with Some Plans,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 13, 2003.
108. Steinberg interview, 2003.
109. The panelists included Gary Hack, dean of the School of Design; James Corner, chair of the Department of Landscape Architecture (School of Design); Witold Rybczynski, professor of urbanism and real estate (School of Design); Peter Linneman, professor of finance, business, and public policy (Wharton School of Business); and Jim Cuorato, director, Philadelphia Department of Commerce. The panel was moderated by Robert Yaro, professor of practice (School of Design), who had organized the public forums on redevelopment of the World Trade Center site in 2002.
110. The organizers reviewed the contributions of each group and then crafted the following core principles: (1) distinctly Philadelphia, with pride; (2) it's the river, stupid; (3) get the connections right; (4) bolster “Destination Philadelphia” (5) make it affordable and sustainable; (6) keep it a public space; and (7) use a public process. “The Penn's Landing Principles,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 9, 2003.
111. Personal interview, Richard Bartholomew, architect, Wallace, Roberts & Todd, Philadelphia, April 25, 2003.
112. Personal interview, Harris Sokoloff, Director, Center for School Study Council, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, April 9, 2003.
113. Steinberg interview, 2003; Sokoloff interview, 2003.
114. Cuorato interview, 2003; see also Henry J. Holcomb, “City Seeks Details for Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 28, 2003.
115. One proposal included a 600-foot condominium tower, townhouses, a 20-screen movie theater, a Broadway-style theater, a 7,000-car garage, shops, cafes, and restaurants; its high-density development plan represented the clearest departure from the spirit of the public forums.
116. Marcia Gelbart, “Mayor Pulls Plan for Penn's Landing,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 15, 2004.
117. Emile Lounsberry, “Federal Probe of Corruption in City Expands, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, November 16, 2003 ; Erin Einhorn, Bob Warner, and Chris Brennan, “FBI Turns Attention to Penn's Landing, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, March 10, 2004. In December 2005, Leonard Ross, a member of the Penn's Landing Corp. Board, pleaded guilty to charges of corruption and conspiracy to commit extortion. John Shiffman, “Street Ally Pleads Guilty to Corruption Charges, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, December 14, 2003.
118. Marcia Gelbart, “Street's ‘If at First’ River Plan,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 2006. Other representatives of the Central Delaware Advisory Group include the executive director of Planning Commission, who would serve as chair; twenty-two additional government officials; three representatives of business improvement districts; four representatives of local chambers of commerce; and an unspecified number of representatives from private funding sources. See Plan Philly, “Executive Order,” http://www.planphilly.com/executiveorder (accessed February 12, 2008).
119. Penn Praxis proceeded to follow more or less the model that it had developed in 2003 to promote civic deliberation and comprehensive planning with respect to Penn's Landing. It quickly organized a series of public forums in neighborhoods located along the central Delaware riverfront. Hundreds of citizens gathered to discuss what they most valued about the waterfront and identify principles to guide future development. Those forums were supplemented by a best practices session led by experts on waterfront development and a three-day design visioning workshop aimed at using the citizen-derived principles to create a new “civic vision.” Penn Praxis presented that civic vision- one that emphasized public access to the water by extending the city's street grid to the riverfront and the preservation of green space-at a meeting attended by more than a thousand citizens at the Pennsylvania Convention Center in November 2007. Inga Saffron, “To the Mayor-Elect: Look to the River Plan,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 15, 2007.
120. Henry J. Holcomb, “Five Waterfront Condo Towers Planned, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, October 10, 2003 ; see also “Trump Proposes 45-Story Condo on Delaware River Waterfront,” Associated Press, January 24, 2006. In 2004, the Pennsylvania state legislature had voted to authorize legalized gambling, allowing fourteen slot machine casinos throughout the state and two within Philadelphia. Five casino developers subsequently submitted proposals, four of which were located along the Delaware waterfront. Suzette Parmley, “Gaming in Pennsylvania,” Philadelphia Inquirer, December 29, 2005.
121. Sabatini interview, 2003. Similarly, Stanhope Browne, who chaired the Penn's Landing Corporation between 1981 and 1997, had undergone a significant change in his outlook by the first decade of the new century. Whereas he had initially viewed his job as promoting development to recover the city's sizeable investment in Penn's Landing, he came to believe that the site should be primarily a public space with plenty of grass. Browne interview, 2007.
122. Warner, The Privatist City.
123. Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).
124. Richard Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, Community, and Everyday Life ( New York: Basic Books, 2002).
125. Inglehart, Culture Shift; Rosdil, “The Context of Radical Populism”; but for an alternative view of the political impact of the creative class, see Jamie Peck, “Struggling with the Creative Class,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 29, no. 4: 740-70.
126. Center City District, “Residential Development: 2006-2008” (Philadelphia: 2005), www.centercityphila.org/docs/residentialreport2006.pdf (accessed February 12, 2008).
127. Tom Fitzgerald, “On Nutter's Horizon-Graft to Gripes: Why Voters Chose Change,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 20, 2007.
128. Jennifer Lin, “Influx of Newcomers Fueling Phila. Activism, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, August 26, 2007.
129. Tom Fitzgerald, “Insurgent Democrats Win 64 Seats on Ward Committees, “ Philadelphia Inquirer, May 19, 2006.
130. Marcia Gelbart, “Philadelphians Back a Strong Ethics Board,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 17, 2006.
131. Larry Eichel, “Nutter Wins in Democratic Primary,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 2007; Dave Davies, “How Would Nutter Stack Up as a Leader?” Philadelphia Daily News, May 7, 2007.
132. Tom Fitzgerald, “Message of Change a Winner,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 2007; Patrick Kerkstra, “3 Incumbents Are Booted Out of Council Seats,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 2007.
133. Patrick Kerkstra and Marcia Gelbart, “Nutter: ‘A New Day,’” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 7, 2007.