The rise and fall of secularism in the Arab World

Middle East Policy

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 147-160

  Salem, Paul ^a,b,c  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT   (Lebanon)

^b Lebanese Center for Policy Studies   (Lebanon)

^c BROOKINGS INSTITUTION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 6944255289     PISSN: 10611924     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4967.1996.tb00230.x     Document Type: Article

References (29)

1. See Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 99-102; and Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: A Critical Enquiry, edited and translated by Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), p. 76.
2. See Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 99-102; and Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: A Critical Enquiry, edited and translated by Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), p. 76.
3. Aziz al-Azmeh, Al-Ilmaniyya min mandhur akhar (Secularism from a Different Perspective) (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wihda al-Arabiyya, 1992), p. 96.
4. See Muhammad Arkoun, "al-Islam wal-Ilmaniyya" (Islam and Secularism), Al-Waqi, vol. I, no. 1, 1981, p. 16.
5. See Sati al-Husr, Ara wa ahadith fil-wataniyya wal-qawmiyya (Opinions and Conversations on Patriotism and Nationalism) (Baghdad: Muhammad Naji al-Khudari, 1944), pp. 27ff.
6. See Michel Aflaq, Fi sabil al-Baath (Toward an Arab Renaissance) (Beirut: Dar al-Taliah, 1959), pp. 43, 46, 54, 123.
7. Antun Saadeh, al Muhadurat al-ashr (The Ten Lectures) (Beirut: Feqhali Press, 1959), p. 109.
8. See Ahmad Lutfi-Sayyid, Taammulatfi al-falsafa wal-adab wal-ijtima (Reflections on Philosophy, Literature, Politics and Society) (Egypt, Dar al-Maarif, 1946); and Taha Husayn, Mustaqbal al-thaqqfa fi misr (The Future of Culture in Egypt) (Cairo, 1938).
9. See Ahmad Lutfi-Sayyid, Taammulatfi al-falsafa wal-adab wal-ijtima (Reflections on Philosophy, Literature, Politics and Society) (Egypt, Dar al-Maarif, 1946); and Taha Husayn, Mustaqbal al-thaqqfa fi misr (The Future of Culture in Egypt) (Cairo, 1938).
10. On early Arab communism, see Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 367-372; A.G. Samarbarsh, Socialisme en Irak et en Syrie (Paris: Editions Anthropos, 1978), pp. 106-109; Walter Laqueur, Communism and Nationalism in the Middle East (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), pp. 31-36.
11. On early Arab communism, see Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 367-372; A.G. Samarbarsh, Socialisme en Irak et en Syrie (Paris: Editions Anthropos, 1978), pp. 106-109; Walter Laqueur, Communism and Nationalism in the Middle East (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), pp. 31-36.
12. On early Arab communism, see Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 367-372; A.G. Samarbarsh, Socialisme en Irak et en Syrie (Paris: Editions Anthropos, 1978), pp. 106-109; Walter Laqueur, Communism and Nationalism in the Middle East (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), pp. 31-36.
13. See M.S. Agwani, Communism in the Arab East (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1969), pp. 177-190.
14. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
15. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
16. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
17. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
18. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
19. See Walid Kazziha, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades, from Nationalism to Marxism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975), pp. 84-86; Tariq Ismael, The Arab Left (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1976), pp. 92-107; Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), pp. 135ff; Sadeq Jalal al-Azm, Al-Naqdal-ahatibaadal-hadma (Self-Criticism after the Defeat) and Naqd al-fikr al-dini (A Critique of Religious Thinking) (Beirut: Dar al-Talia, 1969); and Samir Amin, The Arab Nation (London: Zed Press, 1978).
20. Azmeh, pp. 83ff.
21. See Hourani, pp. 67ff; Elie Keddouri, Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religions Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Frank Cass, 1966), pp. 18-24; Nikkie Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: The Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al Afghani (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 82-84; Kerr, pp. 39-40.
22. See Hourani, pp. 67ff; Elie Keddouri, Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religions Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Frank Cass, 1966), pp. 18-24; Nikkie Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism: The Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al Afghani (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 82-84; Kerr, pp. 39-40.
23. See Rida's articles in al-Manar; Hasan al-Banna, Majmnat rasail al-imam al-shahid (The Collected Letters of the Martyred Iman) (Cairo: Dar al-Quran al-Karim, n.d.); and Qutb.
24. See Rida's articles in al-Manar; Hasan al-Banna, Majmnat rasail al-imam al-shahid (The Collected Letters of the Martyred Iman) (Cairo: Dar al-Quran al-Karim, n.d.); and Qutb.
25. See e.g., Fouad Ajami, The Arab Predicament (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 5-6.
26. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952), pp. 276-3321; Marvin Rintala, "Political Generations," in David Sills, ed., The International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, vol. 7 (New York: Macmillan and The Free Press, 1968), pp. 92-95.
27. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952), pp. 276-3321; Marvin Rintala, "Political Generations," in David Sills, ed., The International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, vol. 7 (New York: Macmillan and The Free Press, 1968), pp. 92-95.
28. Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
29. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Crises Elites and Democratization in the Arab World," The Middle East Journal, vol. 47, no. 2 (Spring), 1993, pp. 292-306.