The articulation of two worlds: The master-slave relationship reconsidered

Journal of American History

Volumn 85, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 982-1007

  Morris, Christopher ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 6944242805     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2567218     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Roberts v. Wailes (1839), pp. 66, 67, 69, 74, Probate Court Minutes Book F (Chancery Clerk's Office, Warren County Courthouse, Vicksburg, Miss.);
2. Estate of E. H. Covington, Probate File 301, ibid. The crude birthrate for slaves in 1820-1850 was 6 births per year per 100 slaves. See Robert William Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, 1989), 126.
3. On the Covington plantation, see Christopher Morris, Becoming Southern: The Evolution of a Way of Life, Warren County and Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1770-1860 (New York, 1995), 70-72.
4. William Dusinberre, Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps (New York, 1996), 17, 51.
5. Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Economies of American Negro Slavery (2 vols., Boston, 1974);
6. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, 1956);
7. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974);
8. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York, 1976).
9. Richard H. Steckel, "A Dreadful Childhood: The Excess Mortality of American Slaves," Social Science History, 10 (Winter 1986), 427-65;
10. Philip D. Morgan, "Work and Culture: The Task System and the World of Lowcountry Blacks, 1700 to 1880," William and Mary Quarterly, 39 (Oct. 1982), 563-99;
11. Ann Patton Malone, Sweet Chariot: Slave Family and Household Structure in Nineteenth-Century Louisiana (Chapel Hill, 1992);
12. Larry E. Hudson Jr., To Have and to Hold: Slave Work and Family Life in Antebellum South Carolina (Athens, Ga., 1997);
13. Roderick A. McDonald, The Economy and Material Culture of Slaves: Goods and Chattels on the Sugar Plantations of Jamaica and Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1993);
14. John Campbell, "As 'a Kind of Freeman?: Slaves' Market-Related Activities in the South Carolina Upcountry, 1800-1860," Slavery & Abolition (London), 12 (May 1991), 131-69;
15. Loren Schweninger, "The Underside of Slavery: Internal Economy, Self-Hire, and Quasi-Freedom in Virginia, 1750-1865," Slavery & Abolition (ibid. (Sept. 1991), 1-22;
16. Dusinberre, Them Dark Days;
17. Orville Vernon Burton, In My Father's House Are Many Mansions: Family and Community in Edgefield, South Carolina (Chapel Hill, 1985);
18. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana, 1984);
19. Brenda E. Stevenson, Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South (New York, 1996);
20. Morris, Becoming Southern.
21. Karl Marx, The Grundrisse (New York, 1973), 97.
22. On articulation theory and critiques of it, see Emmanuel Terray, Marxism and "Primitive" Societies, trans. Mary Klopper (New York, 1972), 156-62;
23. John Clammer, "Economic Anthropology and the Sociology of Development: 'Liberal' Anthropology and Its French Critics," in Beyond the Sociology of Development: Economy and Society in Latin American and Africa, ed. Ivar Oxaal, Tony Barnett, and David Booth (Boston, 1975), 208-28;
24. Georges Dupré and Pierre Philippe Rey, "Reflections on the Relevance of a Theory of the History of Exchange," in Relations of Production: Marxist Approaches to Economic Anthropology, ed. David Seddon, trans. Helen Lackner (London, 1978), 171-208;
25. Claude Meillassoux, "The Social Organisation of the Peasantry: The Economic Basis of Kinship," Relations of Production: Marxist Approaches to Economic Anthropology, ibid., 159-69;
26. Aidan Foster-Carter, "The Modes of Production Controversy," New Left Review (no. 107, Jan.-Feb. 1978), 47-77;
27. Harold Wolpe, ed., The Articulation of Modes af Production (London, 1980);
28. Gustavo O. Rodriguez, "Original Accumulation, Capitalism, and Precapitalistic Agriculture in Bolivia," trans. Lillian Manzor Coats and Dianne Tritica Robman, Latin American Perspectives, 7 (Fall 1980), 50-66;
29. Benjamin S. Orlove, "Barter and Cash Sale on Lake Titicaca: A Test of Competing Approaches," Current Anthropology, 27 (April 1986), 85-106;
30. William Roseberry, Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History, and Political Economy (New Brunswick, 1989), 145-74;
31. and Daniel Nugent, Spent Cartridges of Revolution: An Anthropological History of Namiquipa, Chihuahua (Chicago, 1993).
32. On the concept of a dual economy as applied to the Old South, see Morton Rothstein, "The Antebellum South as a Dual Economy: A Tentative Hypothesis," Agricultural History, 41 (Oct. 1967), 373-82.
33. On a world capitalist system, see Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1974);
34. Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley, 1982);
35. Steve J. Stern, "Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World-System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean," American Historical Review, 93 (Oct. 1988), 829-72;
36. and Christopher Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall, "World Systems and Modes of Production: Toward the Comparative Study of Transformations," Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 18 (1992), 81-117.
37. Frances Kemble, a plantation mistress, was typical of white observers in perceiving enslaved women as merely responding to the incentives of owners. As Kemble observed, "a woman thinks ... that the more frequently she adds to the number of her master's livestock by bringing new slaves into the world, the more claims she will have upon his consideration and good will." Kemble did not see that women sought "his consideration and good will" in the interest of their families. But then, Kemble could not conceive how slaves could have real families. Frances Anne Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839, ed. John A. Scott (Athens, Ga., 1984), 95.
38. Anthony Giddens, "Notes on the Theory of Structuration," in Studies in Social and Political Theory, ed. Anthony Giddens (New York, 1977), 129-34;
39. Jeffrey C. Isaac, Power and Marxist Theory: A Realist View (Ithaca, 1987);
40. Barry Wellman, "Structural Analysis: From Metaphor to Substance," in Social Structures: A Network Approach, ed. Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz (New York, 1988), 31.
41. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 5.
42. Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, eds.; Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas (Charlottesville, 1993), 41;
43. Hudson, To Have and to Hold.
44. My emphasis on the surprising extent of slave autonomy contrasts with Peter Kolchin's view, based in part on comparison with other systems of bound labor, such as Russian serfdom, that slaves experienced relatively little autonomy. See Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619-1877 (New York, 1993), 151-52.
45. See also James Walvin, Questioning Slavery (London, 1997).
46. Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800 (Chapel Hill, 1986), 352-80;
47. Gutman, Black Family in Slavery and Freedom;
48. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll;
49. Fogel and Engerman, Time on the Cross;
50. Norrece T. Jones, Born a Child of Freedom, Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina (Middletown, 1990), 62.
51. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 153;
52. Morris, Becoming Southern, 69;
53. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York, 1985), 20;
54. Malone, Sweet Chariot, 16-18, esp. 180;
55. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 137;
56. Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation, ed. Scott, 95;
57. Steckel, "Dreadful Childhood," 427-65.
58. John Campbell and I have uncovered evidence of Georgia and Mississippi cotton planters holding out reductions in work as incentives for women to have children. Joseph Reidy found evidence of Georgia cotton planters offering food and clothing as rewards for new mothers. However, Leslie A. Schwalm found few such examples among South Carolina rice planters, who kept women of childbearing age working at even the most burdensome chores, including "mudwork," the repair of ditches and banks. Still, even on rice plantations the task of burning stubble, generally regarded as one of the easier chores, was frequently assigned to expecting mothers. See Morris, Becoming Southern, 70;
59. John Campbell, "Work, Pregnancy, and Infant Mortality among Southern Slaves," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 14 (Spring 1984), 793-812;
60. Joseph Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill, 1992), 245;
61. and Leslie A. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We: Woman's Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina (Urbana, 1997), 19-22, 42-44.
62. Barbara Bush-Slimani, "Hard Labour: Women, Childbirth, and Resistance in British Caribbean Slave Societies," History Workshop (Oxford), 36 (Autumn 1993), 83-99;
63. Barbara Bush, Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650-1838 (Bloomington, 1990), 120-50.
64. Decisions made by enslaved women and their owners regarding families were also shaped by the cycle of particular crops. See Cheryll Ann Cody, "Cycles of Work and of Childbearing: Seasonality in Women's Lives on Low Country Plantations," in More than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, ed. David Barry Caspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Bloomington, 1996), 61-78.
65. Steckel, "Dreadful Childhood," 427-65;
66. Richard S. Dunn, "Sugar Production and Slave Women in Jamaica," in Cultivation and Culture, ed. Berlin and Morgan, 49-72;
67. Robert William Fogel, "Was the Overwork of Pregnant Women Profit Maximizing?," in Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery-Evidence and Methods, ed. Robert William Fogel, Ralph A. Galantine, and Richard L. Manning (New York, 1992), 321-25;
68. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, 245;
69. Wade (Walter) Plantation Diary, typescript, 2 vols., I, 101-3, 125, 156,
70. Wade (Plantation Diary, II, 1-2, 36-38 (Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson);
71. Christopher Morris, "Within the Slave Cabin: Violence in Mississippi Slave Families," in Over the Threshold: Intimate Violence in Early America, 1640-1865, ed. Christine Daniels (New York, 1999, forthcoming).
72. Schwalm, Hard Fight for We, 43;
73. Dusinberre, Them Dark Days, 16-24.
74. Morris, Becoming Southern, 72-74.
75. Slave owners in nonagricultural settings also attempted to manipulate slave demography in the interest of profits. William Ellison, a free black slave owner of Charleston, preferred to have men in his gin-making shop. But he did own some women, on whom he relied to produce the boys who would become future workers. Ellison sold young girls. See Michael P. Johnson and James L. Roark, Black Masters: A Free Family of Color in the Old South (New York, 1984), 78-79, 131-34.
76. Campbell, "Work, Pregnancy, and Infant Mortality among Southern Slaves," 793-812;
77. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 51;
78. Steckel, "Dreadful Childhood," 448;
79. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 153;
80. Stevenson, Life in Black and White, 226-57.
81. Robert William Fogel concluded that no significant profit was gained by reducing work loads and encouraging healthy births. He calculates the child's market value at age one month but not over the term of the child's life. Not all slaves survived to adulthood, of course, but for some masters, encouraging births posed a risk worth taking. See Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, "The Slave Breeding Thesis," in Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery - Technical Papers: Conditions of Slave Life and the Transition to Freedom, ed. Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman (2 vols., New York, 1992), II, 455-72, esp. 466-67;
82. and Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 153.
83. If masters manipulated fertility, the evidence will be found at the local level. The debate over the so-called slave-breeding thesis has relied primarily on aggregate-level data. See Fogel and Engerman, Time on the Cross, 78-86;
84. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 453-54;
85. Gutman, Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 158-59;
86. Richard Sutch, "The Breeding of Slaves for Sale and the Westward Expansion of Slavery, 1850-1860," in Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies, ed. Stanley L. Engerman and Eugene D. Genovese (Princeton, 1975), 173-210;
87. and Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves in the Old South (Madison, 1989), 121-29.
88. For a survey of the literature on slave breeding elsewhere in the Americas, see Magnus Mörner, "Buy or Breed?" Alternative Sources of Slave Supply in the Plantation Societies of the New World (Stockholm, 1980).
89. Dusinberre, Them Dark Days, 78, 136, 187, 206;
90. James Henry Hammond, Secret and Sacred: The Diaries of James Henry Hammond, a Southern Slaveholder, ed. Carol Bleser (New York, 1988), 41, 72-73;
91. Drew Gilpin Faust, James Henry Hammond and the Old South: A Design for Mastery (Baton Rouge, 1982), 104;
92. David F. Allmendinger, Ruffin: Family and Reform in the Old South (New York, 1990), 74-79.
93. Berlin and Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture, 203-99;
94. Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, eds., The Slaves' Economy: Independent Production by Slaves in the Americas (Portland, 1991);
95. Wayne K. Durrill, "Routine of Seasons: Labour Regimes and Social Ritual in an Antebellum Plantation Community," Slavery & Abolition (London), 16 (Aug. 1995), 180-81;
96. Hudson, To Have and to Hold;
97. Larry E. Hudson Jr., "'All That Cash': Work and Status in the Slave Quarters," in Working toward Freedom; Slave Society and Domestic Economy in the American South, ed. Larry E. Hudson Jr. (Rochester, 1994), 77-94;
98. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 129-30;
99. McDonald, Economy and Material Culture of Slaves;
100. Lawrence T. McDonnell, "Money Knows No Master: Market Relations and the American Slave Community," in Developing Dixie: Modernization in the Traditional Society, ed. Winfred B. Moore Jr., Joseph F. Tripp Jr., and Lyon G. Tyler Jr. (Westport, 1988), 31-44;
101. Morgan, "Work and Culture";
102. Morris, Becoming Southern, 75-76;
103. Robert Olwell, "'A Reckoning of Accounts': Patriarchy, Market Relations, and Control on Henry Laurens's Lowcountry Plantations, 1762-1785," in Working toward Freedom, ed. Hudson, 33-52;
104. Robert Olwell, "'Loose, Idle, and Disorderly': Slave Women in the Eighteenth-Century Charleston Marketplace," in More than Chattel, ed. Gaspar and Hine, 97-110.
105. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, 61-71;
106. Theodore Rosengarten, ed., Tombee: Portrait of a Cotton Planter (New York, 1986), 69, 412;
107. John T. Schlotterbeck, "The Internal Economy of Slavery in Rural Piedmont Virginia," Slavery & Abolition (London), 12 (May 1991), 170-81;
108. Schwalm, Hard Fight for We, 60-63;
109. Schweninger, "Underside of Slavery," 4-9;
110. Loren Schweninger, Black Property Owners in the South, 1790-1915 (Urbana, 1990), 30-36;
111. James Walvin, "Slaves, Free Time, and the Question of Leisure," Slavery & Abolition (London), 16 (April 1995), 1-13;
112. Betty Wood, Women's Work, Men's Work: The Informal Slave Economies of Lowcountry Georgia (Athens, Ga., 1995).
113. Not all scholars are persuaded that the slaves' economy was so extensive as this literature suggests. See Kolchin, American Slavery, 153.
114. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 538;
115. Kolchin, American Slavery, 153;
116. Jones, Born a Child of Freedom, Yet a Slave, 66;
117. McDonald, Economy and Material Culture of Slaves, 77;
118. Hudson, To Have and to Hold, 32-78;
119. Dusinberre, Them Dark Days, 152, 182;
120. Wood, Women's Work, Men's Work, 186.
121. Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, "Introduction: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas," in Cultivation and Culture, ed. Berlin and Morgan, 2;
122. McDonald, Economy and Material Culture of Slaves, 168;
123. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, 62, 70-71.
124. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, 1974);
125. Daniel J. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1783 (Chapel Hill, 1992);
126. James A. Padgett, "A Decree for Louisiana Issued by the Baron of Carondelet, June 1, 1795," Louisiana Historical Quarterly, 20 (July 1937), 601;
127. Campbell, "As 'a Kind of Freeman'?," 132.
128. Virginia statutes in 1792 and 1798 and a Georgia statute in 1755 attempted to halt the internal economy but succeeded only in driving it underground. See Schlotterbeck, "Internal Economy of Slavery in Rural Piedmont Virginia," 171;
129. Betty Wood, "'White Society' and the 'Internal' Slave Economies of Low Country Georgia, c. 1763-1830," Slavery & Abolition (London), 11 (Dec. 1990), 313;
130. Joseph P. Reidy, "Obligation and Right: Patterns of Labor, Subsistence, and Exchange in the Cotton Belt of Georgia, 1790-1860," in Cultivation and Culture, ed. Berlin and Morgan, 154;
131. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, 146, 154;
132. and Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation, ed. Scott, 83, 90.
133. Many South Carolina planters ignored legal prohibitions when they allowed their slaves to raise and trade poultry, pigs, and cattle. See Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 129-30;
134. and Thomas B. Chaplin, "Plantation Journal," in Tombee, ed. Rosengarten, 412, 467, 478-80, 498.
135. Walvin, "Slaves, Free Time, and the Question of Leisure," 11.
136. Dusinberre, Them Dark Days, 182.
137. On the significance of the natural environment in shaping slavery, see Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy;
138. Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosin: A Study of Rural Landscape and Society (Chapel Hill, 1995);
139. Mart Stewart, "What Nature Suffers to Groe": Life, Labor, and Landscape on the Georgia Coast, 1680-1920 (Athens, Ga., 1996);
140. and Joyce E. Chaplin, An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730-1815 (Chapel Hill, 1993).
141. Schwalm, Hard Fight for We, 61;
142. Morris, Becoming Southern, 27-28, 75-76;
143. Steven F. Miller, "Plantation Labor Organization and Slave Life on the Cotton Frontier: The Alabama-Mississippi Black Belt, 1815-1840," in Cultivation and Culture, ed. Berlin and Morgan, 167-68;
144. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, 70-71.
145. Schlotterbeck, "Internal Economy of Slavery in Rural Piedmont Virginia";
146. Timothy J. Lockley, "Encounters between Afro-Americans and Non-Slaveholding Whites in Lowcountry Georgia, 1750-1830" (Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, 1996).
147. Reidy, "Obligation and Right," 146.
148. Drew Faust makes the case for Hammond as a determined paternalist. See Faust, James Henry Hammond and the Old South.
149. In the foreword to Hammond's published diaries, Louis D. Rubin Jr. writes, regarding Hammond's views on race and slavery, "Proslavery rhetoric to the contrary, there was nothing remotely paternalistic about it, if we are to believe the evidence of his diaries." See Louis D. Rubin Jr., "Foreword," in Hammond, Secret and Sacred, ed. Bleser, xi.
150. Hudson, To Have and to Hold, xiv.
151. On the sexual division of labor on slave plantations, see Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, 11-43;
152. and Berlin and Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture, 36.
153. McDonald, Economy and Material Culture of Slaves, 79;
154. Hudson, " 'All That Cash' ";
155. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 59;
156. Roger D. Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1993), 46-47;
157. Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850-1890 (New York, 1983).
158. On the cultural or ideological conflict between modern masters and premodern slaves, see James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York, 1990), 146.
159. On the slave South as a capitalist society, see Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, Fruits of Merchant Capital: Slavery and Bourgeois Property in the Rise and Expansion of Capitalism (New York, 1983);
160. James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982);
161. and Mark M. Smith, Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery, and Freedom in the American South (Chapel Hill, 1997).
162. Philip D. Morgan and George D. Terry, "Slavery in Microcosm: A Conspiracy Scare in Colonial South Carolina," Southern Studies, 21 (Summer 1982), 121-45;
163. Charles Sydnor, A Gentleman of the old Natchez Region, Benjamin L. C. Wailes (Durham, 1938), 103;
164. Jefferson Davis to W. B. Howell, April 24, 1859, folder 4, Howell (William Burr) Papers (Mississippi Department of Archives and History);
165. Abrahams, Singing the Master, 7, 45-47;
166. Stevenson, Life in Black and White, 185-86.
167. For the quotation from the master, see Chaplin, "Plantation Journal," 437, 496.
168. Johnson and Roark, Black Masters, 45.
169. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (New York, 1982), 402-34;
170. William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. I: Secessionists at Bay, 1776-1854 (New York, 1990), 98-118;
171. Christopher Morris, "An Event in Community Organization: The Mississippi Slave Insurrection Scare of 1835," Journal of Social History, 22 (Fall 1988), 93-111.
172. State v. Sarah (a negro girl slave), 67, May 1853, bundle, Criminal Cases, box 2 (Old Court House Museum, Vicksburg, Miss.).
173. Berlin and Morgan, "Introduction," 39;
174. McDonald, Economy and Material Culture of Slaves, 62, 84-85, 145-46;
175. Jones, Born a Child of Freedom, Yet a Slave, 95;
176. Hudson, To Have and to Hold, 32-78;
177. Morris, "Within the Slave Cabin."
178. Women dominated the market in Charleston. See Olwell, "'Loose, Idle, and Disorderly.'"
179. Morris, Becoming Southern, 62, 77-78;
180. Hudson, "'All That Cash,'" 78;
181. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, "Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the Old South," American Historical Review, 93 (Dec. 1988), 1247.
182. T. Stephen Whitman, The Price of Freedom: Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore and Early National Maryland (Lexington, Ky., 1997).
183. On "quasi-free" slaves and "quasi-enslaved" free blacks, see Loren Schweninger, "The Roots of Enterprise: Black-Owned Business in Virginia, 1830-1880," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 100 (Oct. 1992), 515-42;
184. Edna Greene Medford, "'There Was so Many Degrees of Slavery...': Unfree Labor in an Antebellum Mixed Farming Community," Slavery & Abolition (London), 14 (Aug. 1993), 35-47;
185. and Whittington B. Johnson, "Free African-American Women in Savannah, 1800-1860: Affluence and Autonomy amid Adversity," Georgia Historical Review, 76 (Summer 1992), 260-83.
186. Stuart B. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery (Urbana, 1996).
187. Nugent, Spent Cartridges of Revolution, 145-49.
188. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York, 1987), 3-97;
189. Michael A. Gomez, "Muslims in Early America," Journal of Southern History (Nov. 1994), 671-710;
190. Margaret Washington Creel, "A Peculiar People": Slave Religion and Community-Culture among the Gullahs (New York, 1988);
191. Colin A. Palmer, "Rethinking American Slavery," in The African Diaspora, ed. Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish (College Station, 1996), 73-99, esp. 96.
192. Charles Joyner also has written of "a parallel stream of belief." See Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 150.
193. Abrahams, Singing the Master, xix, xxii.
194. See also Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 231-32.
195. On long-term change in the Mississippi Valley, see Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy;
196. and Morris, Becoming Southern.
197. Berlin and Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture;
198. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South;
199. Ira Berlin, "From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America," William and Mary Quarterly, 53 (April 1996), 251-88;
200. Morris, Becoming Southern;
201. Marie Jenkins Schwartz, "Father's Work, Mothers Work: Survival Strategies of Slave Families," paper delivered at the Southern Historical Association, Atlanta, Nov. 1997 (in Marie Jenkins Schwartz's possession);
202. Daina L. Ramey, "'A Heap of Us Slaves': Family and Community Life among Slave Women in Georgia," paper delivered at the Southern Historical Association, Atlanta, Nov. 1997 (in Daina L. Ramey's possession).
203. Oakes, Slavery and Freedom, 169-94.
204. On slavery during the war and on the immediate aftermath of slavery, see Clarence L. Mohr, On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (Athens, Ga., 1986);
205. Ira Berlin et al., Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War (Cambridge, Eng., 1992);
206. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We;
207. and Eric Foner, Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy (Baton Rouge, 1983).