Desirable teeth: The medieval trade in Arctic and African ivory

Journal of Global History

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 271-292

  Seaver, Kirsten A ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

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EID: 68949155491     PISSN: 17400228     EISSN: 17400236     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1740022809003155     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Recent examples include Jette Arneborg, 'Det europæiske landnam: Nordboerne i Grønland', in Hans Christian Gulløv, ed., Grønlands forhistorie, København: Gyldendal, 2004, pp. 221-278 (which accepts Roesdahl's hypothesis on pp. 277-278)
2. and Jared Diamond, Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed, New York: Viking, 2005, pp. 178-276, 436-7
3. Inge Bødkter Enghoff, 'Hunting, fishing and animal husbandry at the Farm Beneath the Sand, Western Greenland', Meddelelser om Grønland: Man and Society, 28, 2003, pp. 15, 30, 91. Many of the finds made during those excavations have not yet been analysed; there will be further Danish reports on the topic
4. See, e.g., Thomas H. McGovern, 'The economics of extinction', in T. M. Wrigley, M. J. Ingram, and G. Farmer, eds., Climate and history: studies in past climates and their impact on man, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 404-29
5. Kirsten Hastrup, 'Sæters in Iceland, 900-1600', Acta Borealia 6, 1, 1989, pp. 72-85
6. See, e.g., Niels Lynnerup, 'The Greenland Norse: a biological- anthropological study', Meddelelser om Grønland 24, 1998, pp. 126-128
7. Valkendorf's expedition (which never took place) received a papal indulgence dated 17 June 1514 (Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol. 17, pp. 1260, 1263)
8. Else Roesdahl, Hvalrostand, elfenben og nordboerne i Grønland, Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag, 1995
9. Else Roesdahl, idem, 'L'ivoire de morse et les colonies norroises du Groenland', Proxima Thule: Revue d'Études Nordiques, 3, 1998, pp. 9-48
10. For more on the taxonomic confusion involving northern marine species, see Kirsten A. Seaver, '"A very common and usuall trade": the relationship between cartographic perceptions and fishing in the Davis Strait c.1500-1550', British Library Journal, 22, 1, 1996, pp. 1-24
11. reproduced in Karen Severud Cook, ed., Images and icons of the New World: essays on American cartography, London: British Library Publications, 1996, pp. 1-26
12. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol.10, p. 30, letter to Ægidius Correnbitter in Bruges from Bishop Hákon in Bergen, 29 September 1338
13. Henrik Ludvigsson's will, 8 May 1346, in Diplomatarium Suecanum, vol.5, p. 4074
14. Jordanes, The gothic history of Jordanes, trans. and with commentary by Charles Christopher Mierow, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1915, p. 56
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17. Richard Ettinghausen, 'Studies in Muslim iconography: the unicorn', Washington, DC: Freer Gallery of Art, 1950, p. 121
18. Arthur MacGregor, The small finds in craft, industry and everyday life: bone, antler, ivory and horn: the technology of skeletal materials since the Roman Period, London: Croom-Helm, 1985, pp. 38-9
19. Danielle Gaborit-Chopin, Ivoires du Moyen Age, Fribourg: Office du Livre, 1978, pp. 14-15
20. Derek Wilson and Peter Ayerst, White gold: the story of African ivory, London: Heinemann, 1976, pp. 18-21, 23-5, 42
21. Mark Horton, 'Beyond Europe: the supply of exotic raw materials into the medieval world from sub-Saharan Africa', in Medieval Europe 1992: exchange and trade, Preprinted Papers 5 (Conference on Medieval Archaeology in Europe 21-24 September 1992 at the University of York), York, 1992, pp. 197-204
22. Wilson and Ayerst, White gold, pp. 26-7
23. Gaborit-Chopin, Ivoires, pp. 12-14, 119
24. MacGregor, The small finds, pp. 38-9
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29. Roesdahl, Hvalrostand, p. 31
30. Blindheim, Middelalderkunst, p. 17
31. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol.5, nos. 562, 652, 1086; vol.6, nos. 101, 147, 159, 164, 208, 273, 467
32. Robert W. Harms, River of wealth, river of sorrow: the central Zaire basin in the era of the slave and ivory trade, 1500-1891, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981, pp. 39-41, 48-9
33. G. R. Crone, The Voyages of Cadamosto and other documents on western Africa in the second half of the fifteenth century, London: Hakluyt Society, 1937, pp. 46 ff
34. Peter Russell, Prince Henry 'the Navigator': a life, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001, pp. 312-13
35. Ettinghausen, 'Studies', pp. 117-31
36. Zygmunt Abramowitcz, 'The expressions "fish-tooth" and "lionfish" in Turkish and Persian', Folia Orientalia 12, 1970, pp. 25-32
37. Martin Waldseemüller, Carta marina navigatoria, 1516, facsimile in The British Library, Maps 920 (536)
38. Seaver, "'A very common and usuall trade'", pp. 13-14
39. Lars Hamre, Erkebiskop Erik Valkendorf: trekk av hans liv og virke, Oslo: [Universitetsforlaget], 1943, p. 39
40. Valentin Kiparsky, 'L'Histoire du morse', Annales Academiae Scientiarium Fennicae, series B, 73, 1952, pp. 46-8
41. Albrecht Dürer, Head of a walrus, British Museum Department of Print and Drawings, BM.5261-167
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43. Olaus Magnus, Carta marina, Venice, 1539, facsimile in The British Library, Maps 184.e.1, plate B
44. Karl Ahlenius, Olaus Magnus och hans framställning af Nordens Geografi, Uppsala, 1895, pp. 39-44
45. Kirsten A. Seaver, 'Olaus Magnus and the "Compass" on Hvitsark', Journal of Navigation, 54, pp. 235-54
46. Konrad Gesner, Historia Animalium, Frankfurt-am-Main: J. Saur, 1598, vol.4 ('Fischbuch')
47. Kirsten A. Seaver, Maps, myths, and men: the story of the Vinland Map, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004, p. 29
48. E.g., Gwyn Jones, Norse Atlantic saga, 2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 277
49. Claus Andreasen, 'Nordbosager fra Vesterbygden på Grønland', Hikuin, 6, 1980, pp. 135-46
50. Ingrid Sørensen, 'Pollenundersøgelser i møddingen på Niaqussat', Grønland, 8, 1982, pp. 296-304
51. Kirsten A. Seaver, The frozen echo: Greenland and the exploration of North America ca. A.D. 1000-1500, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 21-22
52. H. S. Møller, K. G. Jensen, A. Kuijpers, S. Aagaard- Sørensen, M.-S. Seidenkrantz, M. Prins, R. Endler, and N. Mikkelsen, 'Late-Holocene environment and climatic changes in Ameralik Fjord, southwest Greenland: evidence from the sedimentary record', The Holocene, 16, 5, 2006, p. 686
53. 'Grænlendinga tháttr', in Gudni Jónsson, ed., Îslendinga sögur, Reykjavík: Islenzka Bó kmenntafélag, 1968, vol.1, pp. 391-411. Einar also brought a young polar bear and perhaps other gifts as well, but only walrus ivory could be depended on as a source of Church income
54. Ólafur Halldórsson, Grænland í mioaldarítum, Reykjavík: Sögufélag, 1978, pp. 103-16, 401-5)
55. Seaver, Frozen echo, p. 63
56. The first Icelandic tithing law dates from 1096 (Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol. 1, no. 22)
57. Bruce E. Gelsinger, Icelandic enterprise: commerce and economy in the Middle Ages, Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1981, pp. 124-125, citing The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
58. 'Egil's saga', in Vioar Hreinsson, ed., The complete sagas of Icelanders, Reykjavik: Leifur Eirksson Publishing, 1997, vol.1, pp. 50-51
59. Janet Bately, ed., The Old English Orosius, London: Oxford University Press for the Early English Text Society, 1980, pp. 14-16
60. Knut Helle, Bergen bys historie, Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, 1982, vol.1, pp. 114-115
61. Pär Hansson, ed., Novgorod-Örebro-Lübeck after 700 years, 1295-1995: seminar i Örebro 4-5 mars 1995, Örebro (Sweden): Örebro Kommuns Bildningsförval, 1995, pp. 30-31
62. Jordanes, Gothic history, pp. 55-6
63. Veale, English fur trade, pp. 63-6
64. T. H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse 1157-1611, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 79
65. Helle, Bergen, pp. 317, 321-5
66. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol.19, nos. 459, 465
67. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol.3, p. 48; vol.5, p. 48
68. Konstantin Höhlbaum, ed., Hansisches Urkundenbuch, Halle: Verein für hansische Geschichte, 1879 and 1882-86, vol.2, pp. 117-19; vol.3, p. xv
69. R. Keyser and P. A. Munch, Norges gamle Love indtil 1387, Christiania: Grøndahl, 1882-86, vol.3, p. xv
70. Grethe Authén Blom, Norge i union på 1300-tallet: kongedømme, politikk, administrasjon og forvaltning 1319-1380, Trondheim: Tapir, 1992, vol.1, pp. 35, 42-43
71. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol.7, nos. 103-104
72. Peter Andreas Munch, Pavelige nuntiers regnskabe, Christiania,1864, pp. 25, 29
73. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol.10, no.30, letter to Ægidius Correnbitter in Bruges from Bishop Hákon in Bergen, 29 September 1338
74. Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol. 5, no. 152
75. Finnur Jónsson, 'Grønlands gamle topografi efter kilderne: Østerbygden og Vesterbygden', Meddelelser om Grønland, 20, 1899, p. 278
76. idem, ed., Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse af Ivar Bároarson: udgiven efter håndskrifterne, Copenhagen: Levin and Munksgaard, 1930, pp. 9, 32
77. Gustav Storm, ed., Islandske Annaler indtil 1578, Oslo: Kjeldeskriftfondet, 1977 (reprint of 1888 edition), p. 229
78. Concerning Bishop Alf's death, see Storm, Islandske Annaler, pp. 282, 354, 414
79. Björn Thorsteinsson, 'Henry VIII and Iceland', Saga-Book 15, 1959, pp. 67-101, esp. pp. 68-9
80. E.g., Thomas McGovern, 'Bones, buildings, and boundaries: palæoeconomic approaches to Norse Greenland', in Christopher D. Morris and D. James Rackham, eds., Norse and later settlement and subsistence in the North Atlantic, Glasgow: University of Glasgow, Department of Archaeology, 1992, pp. 192-230, esp. pp. 195-96
81. Thomas McGovern and G. F. Bigelow, 'Archaeozoology of the Norse site Ø17a Narssaq District, Southwest Greenland', Acta Borealia 1, 1984, pp. 85-101, esp. pp. 96-97
82. Poul-Erik Philbert, 'Man er hvad man spiser', Polarfronten, 2, 2002, pp. 12-13
83. Maps of these fishing banks are found in Charles Drever, 'Cod fishing at Greenland', London, c.1972, typescript held in the British Library, x.313/380
84. See also Seaver, Maps, pp. 60-86
85. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol.3, nos. 597 (1409), 630-2 (1414); vol.4, no.376 (1424). According to Finn Magnusen, Bishop Odd Einarsson of Skálholt made verified transcripts of both the original affidavit and the two subsequent confirmations
86. See, for example, Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol.16, no.8
87. and cargo lists in E. M. Carus-Wilson, The overseas trade of Bristol, London: Merlin Press, 1967, pp. 252-253
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89. Bent Fredskild, 'idem, 'Agriculture in a marginal area: south Greenland from the Norse landnam (A.D. 985) to the present (1985)', in Hilary H. Birks, H. J. B. Birks, Peter Emil Kaland, and Dagfinn Moe, eds., The cultural landscape: past, present and future, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 381-94
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95. Henry Lintot and John Osborn, eds., A collection of voyages and travels, 2 vols., London, 1744, vol.2, pp. 363-406
96. Diplomatarium Islandicum, vol.6, nos. 66, 67
97. Eleanora Mary Carus-Wilson, The merchant adventurers of Bristol, Bristol: Local History Pamphlet 4, 1962, pp. 15-16
98. See, e.g., Henry Percival Biggar, The precursors of Cartier, Ottawa: Publications of the Canadian Archives no. 5, 1911, pp. 40-59
99. David Beers Quinn, Alison M. Quinn, and Susan Hillier, eds., New American world: a documentary history of North America to 1612, 5 vols., New York, 1979, vol.1, pp. 103-9, 117-21
100. David Beers Quinn, England and the discovery of America, 1481-1620, London: Allen & Unwin, 1974, pp. 114-15, 121
101. David Beers Quinn, North America from earliest discoveries to first settlements: the Norse voyages to 1612, London: Harper and Row, 1977, pp. 124-5
102. James A. Williamson, The Cabot voyages and Bristol discovery under Henry VII, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1962, pp. 235-47
103. Alwyn A. Ruddock, 'The reputation of Sebastian Cabot', Bulletin of the Institute for Historical Research, 47, 1974, p. 98
104. Carla Rahn Phillips, 'The growth and composition of trade in the Iberian empires, 1450-1750', in James D. Tracy, ed., The rise of merchant empires, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 48, n. 21
105. John Hatcher, Plague, population and the English economy, 1348-1530, London: Macmillan, 1977, pp. 27-30, 43, 55-8, 60-4
106. Paul Slack, The impact of plague in Tudor and Stuart England, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985, pp. 15-17, 56-68, 70-3 (esp. fig. 1, p. 71), 84-9, 112, 185-7
107. William H. McNeill, Plagues and peoples, Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1976, p. 169