Parabrachial coding of sapid sucrose: Relevance to reward and obesity

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1170, Issue , 2009, Pages 347-364

  Hajnal, Andras ^a   Norgren, Ralph ^a   Kovacs, Peter ^a  

^a PENN STATE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Appetite; Diabetes; Dopamine; Gustatory plasticity; Obesity; Pons; Taste

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; PROTEIN C FOS; SODIUM CHLORIDE; SUCROSE;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BODY WEIGHT; BRAIN CELL; BRAIN DAMAGE; CELL SPECIFICITY; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONTROLLED STUDY; DOPAMINE RELEASE; EVOKED BRAIN STEM RESPONSE; FOOD INTAKE; FOREBRAIN; GENE ACTIVATION; GUSTATORY SYSTEM; MICRODIALYSIS; NONHUMAN; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; OBESITY; ONCOGENE C FOS; OTSUKA LONG EVANS TOKUSHIMA FATTY RAT; OVERNUTRITION; PARABRACHIAL NUCLEUS; PONS ANGLE; RAT; RECORDING; REWARD; RHOMBENCEPHALON; SENSORIMOTOR INTEGRATION; SENSORY STIMULATION; SUGAR INTAKE; TASTE; TASTE ACUITY; THALAMOCORTICAL TRACT; WEIGHT CONTROL; WEIGHT GAIN;

RATTUS;

EID: 68649112368     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.03930.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (192)

1. Norgren, R. et al. 2003. Motivational modulation of taste. In Cognition and Emotion in the Brain. T. Ono, G. M., R. Llinas, et al., Eds.: 319-334. Elsevier. New York, NY.
2. Lundy, R.F.J. & R. Norgren. 2004. Gustatory system. In The Rat Nervous System.G. Paxinos, Ed.: 891-921. Elsevier Academic Press. San Diego, CA.
3. McCaughey, S.A. 2008.The taste of sugars. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 32: 1024-1043.
4. Smith, G.P. 2004. Accumbens dopamine mediates the rewarding effect of orosensory stimulation by sucrose. Appetite 43: 11-13.
5. Wang, G.J., N.D. Volkow & J.S. Fowler. 2002. The role of dopamine in motivation for food in humans: implications for obesity. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 6:601-609.
6. Wise, R.A. 2006. Role of brain dopamine in food reward and reinforcement. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 361: 1149-1158.
7. Hajnal, A., G.P. Smith & R. Norgren. 2004. Oral sucrose stimulation increases accumbens dopamine in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.286: R31-R37.
8. Hajnal, A. & R. Norgren. 2005. Taste pathways that mediate accumbens dopamine release by sapid sucrose. Physiol. Behav. 84: 363- 369.
9. Mungarndee, S.S., R.F. Lundy, Jr. & R. Norgren. 2008. Expression of Fos during sham sucrose intake in rats with central gustatory lesions. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 295: R751-R763.
10. Norgren, R., A. Hajnal & S.S. Mungarndee. 2006. Gustatory reward and the nucleus accumbens. Physiol. Behav. 89: 531-535.
11. Kovacs, P. & A. Hajnal. 2008. Altered pontine taste processing in a rat model of obesity. J. Neurophysiol.100: 2145-2157.
12. Levi, J., E. Gadola & L. Segal. 2007. F as in Fat: How Obesity Policies are Failing in America, 2007. Washington, DC: Trust for America's Health Reports. http://healthyamericans.org/reports/obesity2007/.
13. Hill, J.O., V. Catenacci & H.R. Wyatt. 2005. Obesity: overview of an epidemic. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 28: 1-23.
14. Sorensen, L.B. et al. 2003. Effect of sensory perception of foods on appetite and food intake: a review of studies on humans. Int. J. Obes. Relat.Metab. Disord.27: 1152-1166.
15. Yeomans, M.R., J.E. Blundell & M. Leshem. 2004. Palatability: response to nutritional need or needfree stimulation of appetite? Br. J. Nutr. 92(Suppl 1): S3-S14.
16. Sclafani, A. 2001. Psychobiology of food preferences. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25(Suppl 5): S13-S16.
17. Schwartz, G.J. 2000. The role of gastrointestinal vagal afferents in the control of food intake: current prospects. Nutrition 16: 866-873.
18. Gao, Q. & T.L. Horvath. 2007. Neurobiology of feeding and energy expenditure. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.30: 367-398.
19. Berthoud, H.R. 2006. Homeostatic and nonhomeostatic pathways involved in the control of food intake and energy balance. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14(Suppl 5): 197S-200S.
20. Friedman, J.M. & J.L. Halaas. 1998. Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 395:763-770.
21. Kalra, S.P. et al. 1999. Interacting appetiteregulating pathways in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight. Endocr. Rev. 20: 68-100.
22. Saper, C.B., T.C. Chou & J.K. Elmquist. 2002. The need to feed: homeostatic and hedonic control of eating. Neuron 36: 199-211.
23. Shizgal, P., S. Fulton & B. Woodside. 2001. Brain reward circuitry and the regulation of energy balance. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25(Suppl 5): S17-S21.
24. Sclafani, A. 2004. Oral and postoral determinants of food reward. Physiol. Behav. 81: 773-779.
25. Smith, G.P. 1996. The direct and indirect controls of meal size. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 20: 41-46.
26. Smith, G.P. 1998. Satiation: From Gut to Brain. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.
27. Sclafani, A. & K. Ackroff. 2003. Reinforcement value of sucrose measured by progressive ratio operant licking in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 79: 663-670.
28. Mark, G.P. et al. 1994. An appetitively conditioned taste elicits a preferential increase in mesolimbic dopamine release. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 48:651-660.
29. de Araujo, I.E. et al. 2008. Food reward in the absence of taste receptor signaling. Neuron 57: 930- 941.
30. Zhang, Y. et al. 2003. Coding of sweet, bitter, and umami tastes: different receptor cells sharing similar signaling pathways. Cell 112: 293- 301.
31. Cabanac, M. 1971. Physiological role of pleasure. Science 173: 1103-1107.
32. Cabanac, M. & R. Duclaux. 1970. Specificity of internal signals in producing satiety for taste stimuli. Nature 227: 966-967.
33. Cabanac, M. 1979. Sensory pleasure. Q. Rev. Biol.54: 1-29.
34. Bartoshuk, L.M. et al. 2006. Psychophysics of sweet and fat perception in obesity: problems, solutions and new perspectives. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B361: 1137-1148.
35. Cabanac,M. & R. Duclaux. 1970. Obesity: absence of satiety aversion to sucrose. Science 168: 496-497.
36. De Jonghe, B.C., A. Hajnal & M. Covasa. 2007. Conditioned preference for sweet stimuli in OLETF rat: effects of food deprivation. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292: R1819-R1827.
37. Small, D.M.,M. Jones-Gotman & A. Dagher. 2003. Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers. Neuroimage 19: 1709- 1715.
38. Volkow, N.D. et al. 2002. "Nonhedonic" food motivation in humans involves dopamine in the dorsal striatum and methylphenidate amplifies this effect. Synapse 44: 175-180.
39. Volkow, N.D. et al. 2003. Brain dopamine is associated with eating behaviors in humans. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 33: 136-142.
40. Taha, S.A. & H.L. Fields. 2005. Encoding of palatability and appetitive behaviors by distinct neuronal populations in the nucleus accumbens. J. Neurosci.25: 1193-1202.
41. Grigson, P.S. & A. Hajnal. 2007. Once is too much: conditioned changes in accumbens dopamine following a single saccharin-morphine pairing. Behav. Neurosci. 121: 1234-1242.
42. Bassareo, V. & G. Di Chiara. 1999. Modulation of feeding-induced activation of mesolimbic dopamine transmission by appetitive stimuli and its relation to motivational state. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11: 4389- 4397.
43. Bassareo, V. & G. Di Chiara. 1997. Differential influence of associative and nonassociative learning mechanisms on the responsiveness of prefrontal and accumbal dopamine transmission to food stimuli in rats fed ad libitum. J. Neurosci. 17: 851-861.
44. Carr, K.D. 1996. Feeding, drug abuse, and the sensitization of reward by metabolic need. Neurochem. Res. 21: 1455-1467.
45. Pothos, E.N. 2001. The effects of extreme nutritional conditions on the neurochemistry of reward and addiction. Acta Astronaut. 49: 391-397.
46. Booth, D.A. 1972. Taste reactivity in starved, ready to eat and recently fed rats. Physiol. Behav. 8: 901- 908.
47. Pothos, E.N., I. Creese & B.G. Hoebel. 1995. Restricted eating with weight loss selectively decreases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and alters dopamine response to amphetamine, morphine, and food intake. J. Neurosci. 15: 6640- 6650.
48. Hernandez, L. & B.G. Hoebel. 1988. Food reward and cocaine increase extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens as measured by microdialysis. Life Sci. 42: 1705-1712.
49. Ahn, S. & A.G. Phillips. 1999. Dopaminergic correlates of sensory-specific satiety in the medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of the rat. J. Neurosci. 19: RC29.
50. Cenci, M.A. et al. 1992. Regional differences in the regulation of dopamine and noradrenaline release in medial frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen: a microdialysis study in the rat. Brain Res. 581: 217-228.
51. Mitchell, J.B. & A. Gratton. 1992. Partial dopamine depletion of the prefrontal cortex leads to enhanced mesolimbic dopamine release elicited by repeated exposure to naturally reinforcing stimuli. J. Neurosci. 12: 3609-3618.
52. Wilson, C. et al. 1995. Dopaminergic correlates of motivated behavior: importance of drive. J. Neurosci.15: 5169-5178.
53. Hajnal, A. & R. Norgren. 2001. Accumbens dopamine mechanisms in sucrose intake. Brain Res.904: 76-84.
54. Mark, G.P., D.S. Blander & B.G. Hoebel. 1991. A conditioned stimulus decreases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens after the development of a learned taste aversion. Brain Res. 551:308-310.
55. Mark, G.P., D.S. Blander & B.G. Hoebel. 1991. A conditioned stimulus decreases extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens after the development of a learned taste aversion. Brain Res. 551:308-310.
56. Duong, A. & H.P.Weingarten. 1993. Dopamine antagonists act on central, but not peripheral, receptors to inhibit sham and real feeding. Physiol. Behav.54: 449-454.
57. Geary, N. & G.P. Smith. 1985. Pimozide decreases the positive reinforcing effect of sham fed sucrose in the rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 22: 787- 790.
58. Hsiao, S. & G.P. Smith. 1995. Raclopride reduces sucrose preference in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.50: 121-125.
59. Schneider, L.H. 1989. Orosensory self-stimulation by sucrose involves brain dopaminergic mechanisms. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 575: 307-319.
60. Schneider, L.H. et al. 1990. Similar effect of raclopride and reduced sucrose concentration on the microstructure of sucrose sham feeding. Eur. J. Pharmacol.186: 61-70.
61. Smith, G.P. & L.H. Schneider. 1988. Relationships between mesolimbic dopamine function and eating behavior. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 537: 254-261.
62. Shimura, T., Y. Kamada & T. Yamamoto. 2002. Ventral tegmental lesions reduce overconsumption of normally preferred taste fluid in rats. Behav. Brain Res. 134: 123-130.
63. Brennan, K. et al. 2001. Individual differences in sucrose consumption in the rat: motivational and neurochemical correlates of hedonia. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 157: 269-276.
64. Hajnal, A. & R. Norgren. 2001. Accumbens dopamine mechanisms in sucrose intake. Brain Res.904: 76-84.
65. Sills, T.L. & F.J. Vaccarino. 1996. Individual differences in sugar consumption following systemic or intraaccumbens administration of low doses of amphetamine in nondeprived rats. Pharm. Biochem. Behav. 54: 665-670.
66. Szczypka, M.S. et al. 2001. Dopamine production in the caudate putamen restores feeding in dopaminedeficient mice. Neuron 30: 819-828.
67. Roitman, M.F.,R.A.Wheeler & R.M. Carelli. 2005. Nucleus accumbens neurons are innately tuned for rewarding and aversive taste stimuli, encode their predictors, and are linked to motor output. Neuron45: 587-597.
68. Tindell, A.J. et al. 2006. Ventral pallidum firing codes hedonic reward: when a bad taste turns good. J. Neurophysiol. 96: 2399-2409.
69. Carelli, R.M., S.G. Ijames & A.J. Crumling. 2000. Evidence that separate neural circuits in the nucleus accumbens encode cocaine versus "natural" (water and food) reward. J. Neurosci. 20: 4255-4266.
70. Szczypka, M.S. et al. 1999. Viral gene delivery selectively restores feeding and prevents lethality of dopamine-deficient mice. Neuron 22: 167- 178.
71. Szczypka, M.S. et al. 1999. Feeding behavior in dopamine-deficient mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA96: 12138-12143.
72. Avena, N.M. & B.G. Hoebel. 2003. Amphetaminesensitized rats show sugar-induced hyperactivity (cross-sensitization) and sugar hyperphagia. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 74: 635-639.
73. Avena, N.M. & B.G. Hoebel. 2003. A diet promoting sugar dependency causes behavioral crosssensitization to a low dose of amphetamine. Neuroscience122: 17-20.
74. Hajnal, A. et al. 2004. Altered dopamine functions in obese CCK-A receptor defcient (OLETF) rats: reduced motor activity and responsiveness to amphetamine and chronic sucrose feeding, lower dopamine transporter binding. Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience, Program No. 75.19.
75. Levine, A.S., C.M.Kotz & B.A. Gosnell. 2003. Sugars: hedonic aspects, neuroregulation, and energy balance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 78: 834S-842S.
76. Colantuoni, C. et al. 2001. Excessive sugar intake alters binding to dopamine andmu-opioid receptors in the brain. Neuroreport 12: 3549-3552.
77. Bello,N.T. et al. 2003.Restricted feedingwith scheduled sucrose access results in an upregulation of the rat dopamine transporter. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 284: R1260-R1268.
78. Spangler, R. et al. 2004. Opiate-like effects of sugar on gene expression in reward areas of the rat brain. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 124: 134-142.
79. Colantuoni, C. et al. 2002. Evidence that intermittent, excessive sugar intake causes endogenous opioid dependence. Obes. Res. 10: 478- 488.
80. Feifel, D. et al. 2003. Altered extracellular dopamine concentration in the brains of cholecystokinin-A receptor deficient rats. Neurosci. Lett. 348: 147- 150.
81. Anderzhanova, E., M. Covasa & A. Hajnal. 2007. Altered basal and stimulated accumbens dopamine release in obese OLETF rats as a function of age and diabetic status. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 293: R603-611.
82. Yamamoto, T., N. Sako & S. Maeda. 2000. Effects of taste stimulation on beta-endorphin levels in rat cerebrospinal fluid and plasma. Physiol. Behav. 69:345-350.
83. Kelley, A.E. & K.C. Berridge. 2002. The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. J. Neurosci. 22: 3306-3311.
84. Pecina, S., K.S. Smith & K.C. Berridge. 2006. Hedonic hot spots in the brain. Neuroscientist 12: 500- 511.
85. Cooper, S.J. 2004. Endocannabinoids and food consumption: comparisons with benzodiazepine and opioid palatability-dependent appetite. Eur. J. Pharmacol.500: 37-49.
86. Rolls, E.T. 2005. Taste, olfactory, and food texture processing in the brain, and the control of food intake. Physiol. Behav. 85: 45-56.
87. Travers, S.P. & R. Norgren. 1995. Organization of orosensory responses in the nucleus of the solitary tract of rat. J. Neurophysiol. 73: 2144-2162.
88. Norgren, R. & C.M. Leonard. 1971.Taste pathways in rat brainstem. Science 173: 1136-1139.
89. Norgren, R. & C.M. Leonard. 1973. Ascending central gustatory pathways. J. Comp. Neurol. 150: 217- 237.
90. Norgren, R. & C. Pfaffmann. 1975. The pontine taste area in the rat. Brain Res. 91: 99-117.
91. Norgren, R. 1976. Taste pathways to hypothalamus and amygdala. J. Comp. Neurol. 166: 17-30.
92. Kosar, E.,H.J.Grill & R. Norgren. 1986. Gustatory cortex in the rat. II. Thalamocortical projections. Brain Res. 379: 342-352.
93. Nakamura, K. & R. Norgren. 1995. Sodiumdeficient diet reduces gustatory activity in the nucleus of the solitary tract of behaving rats. Am. J. Physiol. 269: R647-R661.
94. Tamura, R. & R. Norgren. 1997. Repeated sodium depletion affects gustatory neural responses in the nucleus of the solitary tract of rats. Am. J. Physiol.273: R1381-R1391.
95. Giza, B.K., T.R. Scott & D.A. Vanderweele. 1992. Administration of satiety factors and gustatory responsiveness in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the rat. Brain Res. Bull. 28: 637-639.
96. Gleen, J.F. & R.P. Erickson. 1976. Gastric modulation of gustatory afferent activity. Physiol. Behav. 16:561-568.
97. Giza, B.K. & T.R. Scott. 1983. Blood glucose selectively affects taste-evoked activity in rat nucleus tractus solitarius. Physiol. Behav. 31: 643-650.
98. Giza, B.K. & T.R. Scott. 1987. Intravenous insulin infusions in rats decrease gustatory-evoked responses to sugars. Am. J. Physiol. 252: R994-R1002.
99. Giza, B.K. et al. 1993. Pancreatic glucagon suppresses gustatory responsiveness to glucose. Am. J. Physiol. 265: R1231-R1237.
100. Hajnal, A., K. Takenouchi & R. Norgren. 1999. Effect of intraduodenal lipid on parabrachial gustatory coding in awake rats. J. Neurosci. 19: 7182-7190.
101. Bittencourt, J.C. et al. 1992. The melaninconcentrating hormone system of the rat brain: an immuno- and hybridization histochemical characterization. J. Comp. Neurol. 319: 218-245.
102. Kishi, T. et al. 2005. Neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor mRNA in rodent brain: distribution and colocalization with melanocortin-4 receptor. J. Comp. Neurol.482: 217-243.
103. Kishi, T. et al. 2003. Expression of melanocortin 4 receptormRNA in the central nervous system of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 457: 213-235.
104. Krude, H. et al. 1998. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat. Genet.19: 155-157.
105. Farooqi, I.S. et al. 2000. Dominant and recessive inheritance of morbid obesity associated with melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency. J. Clin. Invest.106: 271-279.
106. Hajnal, A., M. Covasa & H. Abraham. 2008. Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide immunoreactivity in the brain of the obese OLETF rat. AnnualMeeting of the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior. Appetite 51:370.
107. Kristensen, P. et al. 1998. Hypothalamic CART is a new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin. Nature393: 72-76.
108. Lambert, P.D. et al. 1998. CART peptides in the central control of feeding and interactions with neuropeptide Y. Synapse 29: 293-298.
109. Thim, L. et al. 1998. CART, a new anorectic peptide. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 30: 1281-1284.
110. Vicentic, A. & D.C. Jones. 2007. The CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) system in appetite and drug addiction. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 320: 499-506.
111. Aja, S. et al. 2001. Intracerebroventricular CART peptide reduces food intake and alters motor behavior at a hindbrain site. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 281: R1862-R1867.
112. Schulingkamp, R.J. et al. 2000. Insulin receptors and insulin action in the brain: review and clinical implications. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 24: 855-872.
113. Grill, H.J. & J.M. Kaplan. 2001. Interoceptive and integrative contributions of forebrain and brainstem to energy balance control. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25(Suppl 5): S73-S77.
114. Flynn, F.W. et al. 1991. Central gustatory lesions. I. Preference and taste reactivity tests. Behav. Neurosci.105: 933-943.
115. Grigson, P.S. et al. 1998. Ibotenic acid lesions of the parabrachial nucleus and conditioned taste aversion: further evidence for an associative deficit in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 112: 160-171.
116. Reilly, S., P.S. Grigson & R. Norgren. 1993. Parabrachial nucleus lesions and conditioned taste aversion: evidence supporting an associative deficit. Behav. Neurosci. 107: 1005-1017.
117. Yamamoto, T. et al. 1995. Conditioned taste aversion in rats with excitotoxic brain lesions. Neurosci. Res. 22: 31-49.
118. Spector, A.C., R. Norgren & H.J. Grill. 1992. Parabrachial gustatory lesions impair taste aversion learning in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 106: 147-161.
119. Scalera, G., A.C. Spector & R. Norgren. 1995. Excitotoxic lesions of the parabrachial nuclei prevent conditioned taste aversions and sodium appetite in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 109: 997-1008.
120. Grigson, P.S., T. Shimura & R. Norgren. 1997. Brainstem lesions and gustatory function. III. The role of the nucleus of the solitary tract and the parabrachial nucleus in retention of a conditioned taste aversion in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 111: 180-187.
121. Shimura, T., R. Norgren & P.S. Grigson. 1997. Brainstem lesions and gustatory function I. The role of the nucleus of the solitary tract during a brief intake test in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 111: 155- 168.
122. Grill, H.J. & R. Norgren. 1978. Chronically decerebrate rats demonstrate satiation but not bait shyness. Science 201: 267-269.
123. Grill, H.J. & R. Norgren. 1978. The taste reactivity test. II. Mimetic responses to gustatory stimuli in chronic thalamic and chronic decerebrate rats. Brain Res. 143: 281-297.
124. Lundy, R.F., Jr. & R. Norgren. 2001. Pontine gustatory activity is altered by electrical stimulation in the central nucleus of the amygdala. J. Neurophysiol.85: 770-783.
125. Lundy, R.F., Jr. & R. Norgren. 2004. Activity in the hypothalamus, amygdala, and cortex generates bilateral and convergent modulation of pontine gustatory neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 91: 1143-1157.
126. Li, C.S., Y.K. Cho & D.V. Smith. 2005. Modulation of parabrachial taste neurons by electrical and chemical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus and amygdala. J. Neurophysiol. 93: 1183-1196.
127. Mao, L., Y.K. Cho & C.S. Li. 2008. Modulation of activity of gustatory neurons in the hamster parabrachial nuclei by electrical stimulation of the ventroposteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 294: R1461- 1473.
128. Cho, Y.K., C.S. Li & D.V. Smith. 2002. Taste responses of neurons of the hamster solitary nucleus are enhanced by lateral hypothalamic stimulation. J. Neurophysiol. 87: 1981-1992.
129. Cho, Y.K., C.S. Li & D.V. Smith. 2003. Descending influences from the lateral hypothalamus and amygdala converge onto medullary taste neurons. Chem. Senses 28: 155-171.
130. Cho, Y.K., L. Mao & C.S. Li. 2008. Modulation of solitary taste neurons by electrical stimulation of the ventroposteromedial nucleus of the thalamus in the hamster. Brain Res. 1221: 67-79.
131. Li, C.S., Y.K. Cho & D.V. Smith. 2002. Taste responses of neurons in the hamster solitary nucleus are modulated by the central nucleus of the amygdala. J. Neurophysiol. 88: 2979-2992.
132. Di Lorenzo, P.M. & S. Monroe. 1995. Corticofugal influence on taste responses in the nucleus of the solitary tract in the rat. J. Neurophysiol. 74: 258-272.
133. Matsuo, R.,N. Shimizu & K.Kusano. 1984. Lateral hypothalamic modulation of oral sensory afferent activity in nucleus tractus solitarius neurons of rats. J. Neurosci. 4: 1201-1207.
134. Kobashi, M. & R.M. Bradley. 1998. Effects of GABA on neurons of the gustatory and visceral zones of the parabrachial nucleus in rats. Brain Res.799: 323-328.
135. Saggu, S. & R.F. Lundy. 2008. Forebrain neurons that project to the gustatory parabrachial nucleus in rat lack glutamic acid decarboxylase. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 294: R52-R57.
136. Soderpalm, A.H. & K.C. Berridge. 2000. The hedonic impact and intake of food are increased by midazolam microinjection in the parabrachial nucleus. Brain Res. 877: 288-297.
137. Grill, H.J. & J.M.Kaplan. 2002. The neuroanatomical axis for control of energy balance. Front. Neuroendocrinol.23: 2-40.
138. Schwartz,G.J. 2006. Integrative capacity of the caudal brainstem in the control of food intake. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 361: 1275-1280.
139. Berthoud, H.R. et al. 2006. Brainstem mechanisms integrating gut-derived satiety signals and descending forebrain information in the control of meal size. Physiol. Behav. 89: 517-524.
140. Contreras, R.J., C.A. Carson & C.E. Pierce. 1995. A novel psychophysical procedure for bitter taste assessment in rats. Chem. Senses 20: 305-312.
141. Davis, J.D. 1973. The effectiveness of some sugars in stimulating licking behavior in the rat. Physiol. Behav.11: 39-45.
142. Spector, A.C., H.J. Grill & R. Norgren. 1993. Concentration-dependent licking of sucrose and sodium chloride in rats with parabrachial gustatory lesions. Physiol. Behav. 53: 277-283.
143. Paffmann, C., R. Norgren & H.J. Grill. 1977. Sensory affect and motivation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 290:18-34.
144. Mungarndee, S.S., R.F. Lundy, Jr. & R. Norgren. 2008. Expression of Fos during sham sucrose intake in rats with central gustatory lesions. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 295: R751-R763.
145. Greenberg, D. & S.C. Weatherford. 1990. Obese and lean Zucker rats differ in preferences for shamfed corn oil or sucrose. Am. J. Physiol. 259: R1093- R1095.
146. Hajnal, A., M. Covasa & N.T. Bello. 2005. Altered taste sensitivity in obese, prediabetic OLETF rats lacking CCK-1 receptors. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 289: R1675-R1686.
147. De Jonghe, B.C., A. Hajnal & M. Covasa. 2005. Increased oral and decreased intestinal sensitivity to sucrose in obese, prediabetic CCK-A receptordeficient OLETF rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 288: R292-R300.
148. Grinker, J.A. & W.D. Block. 1991. Sensory responses, dietary-induced obesity and biochemical values in Sprague-Dawley rats. Brain Res. Bull. 27:535-540.
149. Takiguchi, S. et al. 1997. Disrupted cholecystokinin type-A receptor (CCKAR) gene in OLETF rats. Gene 197: 169-175.
150. Kawano, K. et al. 1992. Spontaneous long-term hyperglycemic rat with diabetic complications. Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) strain. Diabetes41: 1422-1428.
151. Bi, S. & T.H. Moran. 2002. Actions of CCK in the controls of food intake and body weight: lessons from the CCK-A receptor deficient OLETF rat. Neuropeptides 36: 171-181.
152. Covasa, M. & R.C. Ritter. 2001. Attenuated satiation response to intestinal nutrients in rats that do not express CCK-A receptors. Peptides 22: 1339- 1348.
153. Moran, T.H. & S. Bi. 2006. Hyperphagia and obesity of OLETF rats lacking CCK1 receptors: developmental aspects. Dev. Psychobiol. 48: 360-367.
154. Hajnal, A., W.M. Margas & M. Covasa. 2008. Altered dopamine D2 receptor function and binding in obese OLETF rat. Brain Res. Bull. 75: 70- 76.
155. Okauchi, N. et al. 1995. Is caloric restriction effective in preventing diabetes mellitus in the Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima fatty rat, amodel of spontaneous non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus? Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 27: 97-106.
156. Shima, K. et al. 1996. Exercise training has a long-lasting effect on prevention of non-insulindependent diabetesmellitus in Otsuka-Long-Evans- Tokushima Fatty rats. Metabolism 45: 475-480.
157. Bi, S. et al. 2005. Running wheel activity prevents hyperphagia and obesity in Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats: role of hypothalamic signaling. Endocrinology 146: 1676-1685.
158. Bi, S. et al. 2001. A role for NPY overexpression in the dorsomedial hypothalamus in hyperphagia and obesity of OLETF rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 281: R254-R260.
159. Bi, S. et al. 2007. Knockdown of dorsomedial hypothalamic NPY gene expression prevents hyperphagia and obesity of OLETF rats lacking CCK1 receptors. Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior Annual Meeting 49: 279.
160. Hajnal, A., B.C. De Jonghe & M. Covasa. 2007. Dopamine D2 receptors contribute to increased avidity for sucrose in obese rats lacking CCK-1 receptors. Neuroscience 148: 584-592.
161. Hajnal,A. et al. 2007. ObeseOLETF rats exhibit increased operant performance for palatable sucrose solutions and differential sensitivity to D2 receptor antagonism.Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr.Comp. Physiol. 293: R1846-R1854.
162. Kovacs, P. & A. Hajnal. 2008. Altered pontine taste processing in a rat model of obesity. J. Neurophysiol.100: 2145-2157. zones of the parabrachial nucleus in rats. Brain Res.799: 323-328.
163. Foster, L.A., K. Boeshore & R. Norgren. 1998. Intestinal fat suppressed intake of fat longer than intestinal sucrose. Physiol. Behav. 64: 451-455.
164. Greenberg, D., G.P. Smith & J. Gibbs. 1990. Intraduodenal infusions of fats elicit satiety in shamfeeding rats. Am. J. Physiol. 259: R110-R118.
165. Covasa, M. & R.C. Ritter. 2005. Reduced CCKinduced Fos expression in the hindbrain, nodose ganglia, and enteric neurons of rats lacking CCK-1 receptors. Brain Res. 1051: 155-163.
166. de Araujo, I.E. et al. 2006. Neural ensemble coding of satiety states. Neuron 51: 483-494.
167. Lundy, R.F., Jr. 2008. Gustatory hedonic value: potential function for forebrain control of brainstem taste processing. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 32: 1601- 1606.
168. Jia, H.G., G.Y. Zhang & Q.Wan. 2005. A GABAergic projection from the central nucleus of the amygdala to the parabrachial nucleus: an ultrastructural study of anterograde tracing in combination with post-embedding immunocytochemistry in the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 382: 153-157.
169. Li, C.S. & Y.K. Cho. 2006. Efferent projection from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis suppresses activity of taste-responsive neurons in the hamster parabrachial nuclei.Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr.Comp. Physiol. 291: R914-R926.
170. Kovacs, P. & A. Hajnal. 2008. High energy high fat diet alters pontine taste coding in rat.Abstracts from the XV International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste. Chem. Senses 33: 756.
171. Nolan, L.J. & T.R. Scott. 1994. The effects of food deprivation on gustatory-evoked activity in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the rat.Abstracts Soc. Neurosci. 20: 1224.
172. Hallock, R.M. & P.M. Di Lorenzo. 2006. Temporal coding in the gustatory system. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.30: 1145-1160.
173. Grossman, S.E. et al. 2008. Learning-related plasticity of temporal coding in simultaneously recorded amygdala-cortical ensembles. J. Neurosci. 28: 2864- 2873.
174. Lemon, C.H. & D.B. Katz. 2007. The neural processing of taste. BMC Neurosci. 8(Suppl 3): S5.
175. Fontanini, A. & D.B. Katz. 2005. 7 to 12Hz activity in rat gustatory cortex reflects disengagement from a fluid self-administration task. J. Neurophysiol. 93:2832-2840.
176. Katz, D.B. 2003. Making time with taste. Focus on taste response variability and temporal coding in the nucleus of the solitary tract of the rat. J. Neurophysiol.90: 1375-1376.
177. Katz, D.B., M.A. Nicolelis & S.A. Simon. 2002. Gustatory processing is dynamic and distributed. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 12: 448-454.
178. Di Lorenzo, P.M. 1990. Corticofugal influence on taste responses in the parabrachial pons of the rat. Brain Res. 530: 73-84.
179. Di Lorenzo, P.M., C.H. Lemon & C.G. Reich. 2003. Dynamic coding of taste stimuli in the brainstem: effects of brief pulses of taste stimuli on subsequent taste responses. J. Neurosci. 23: 8893- 8902.
180. Di Lorenzo, P.M. & J.D. Victor. 2003. Taste response variability and temporal coding in the nucleus of the solitary tract of the rat. J. Neurophysiol.90: 1418-1431.
181. Baird, J.P., S.P. Travers & J.B. Travers. 2001. Integration of gastric distension and gustatory responses in the parabrachial nucleus. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 281: R1581-R1593.
182. Yuan, C.S. & W.D. Barber. 1991. Parabrachial nucleus: neuronal evoked responses to gastric vagal and greater splanchnic nerve stimulation. Brain Res. Bull. 27: 797-803.
183. Cabanac, M. & L. Lafrance. 1992. Ingestive/ aversive response of rats to sweet stimuli. Influence of glucose, oil, and casein hydrolyzate gastric loads. Physiol. Behav. 51: 139-143.
184. Gyetvai, B. & G. Bardos. 1999. Modulation of taste reactivity by intestinal distension in rats. Physiol. Behav.66: 529-535.
185. Figlewicz, D.P. 2003. Insulin, food intake, and reward. Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry 8: 82-93.
186. Shiraishi, J.I. et al. 2007. Central insulin suppresses feeding behavior via melanocortins in chicks. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 34: 223-228.
187. Palovcik, R.A. & M.I. Phillips. 1986. A constant perfusion slice chamber for stable recording during the addition of drugs. J. Neurosci. Methods 17: 129- 139.
188. Plum, L., M. Schubert & J.C. Bruning. 2005. The role of insulin receptor signaling in the brain. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 16: 59-65.
189. Cornier, M.A. et al. 2004. Effects of short-term overfeeding on hunger, satiety, and energy intake in thin and reduced-obese individuals. Appetite 43:253-259.
190. Speechly, D.P. & R. Buffenstein. 2000. Appetite dysfunction in obese males: evidence for role of hyperinsulinaemia in passive overconsumption with a high fat diet. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54: 225- 233.
191. Tschritter, O. et al. 2006. The cerebrocortical response to hyperinsulinemia is reduced in overweight humans: a magnetoencephalographic study. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 12103-12108.
192. Lundy, R. & A. Hajnal. 2006. Altered parabrachial taste processing in obese OLETF rats. Chem. Senses31: A114.