And health care for all: Immigrants in the shadow of the promise of universal health care

American Journal of Law and Medicine

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 185-204

  Ortega, Adrianne ^a  

^a BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EMERGENCY HEALTH SERVICE; GOVERNMENT; HUMAN; INSURANCE; LEGAL ASPECT; MEDICAID; MIGRATION; PATIENT; UNITED STATES;

EMERGENCY SERVICE, HOSPITAL; EMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRANTS; HUMANS; MEDICAID; MEDICALLY UNINSURED; STATE GOVERNMENT; UNITED STATES; UNIVERSAL COVERAGE;

EID: 68049107125     PISSN: 00988588     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009885880903500105     Document Type: Note

References (233)

1. BARACK OBAMA & JOE BIDEN, BARACK OBAMA & JOE BIDEN'S PLAN TO LOWER HEALTH CARE COSTS AND ENSURE AFFORDABLE, ACCESSIBLE HEALTH COVERAGE FOR ALL (2008), http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/issues/HealthCareFullPlan. pdf [hereinafter THE BARACK OBAMA HEALTH CARE PLAN].
2. KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE KAISER COMMISSION ON MEDICAID AND THE UNINSURED, THE UNINSURED: A PRIMER 4 (2007), http://www.kff.org/uninsured/ upload/7451-03.pdf (noting that as of 2002, 34.5million foreign-born people lived in the United States) ;
3. see also STEVEN A. CAMAROTA, CENTER FOR IMMIGRATION STUDIES, IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 2007: A PROFILE OF AMERICA'S FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, http://www.cis.org/articles/2007/backl007.pdf (noting that as of 2007, 37-9 million foreign-born people lived in the United States).
4. See THE BARACK OBAMA HEALTH CARE PLAN, supra note 1, at 5-6;
5. Eric Benson, States Lead the Way on Health Insurance Reform, 35 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 329, 329 (2007) (stating that Massachusetts and California expanded coverage under Medicaid).
6. See infra Part I.
7. See infra Part I.
8. See infra Part I.
9. *5 (N. D. Cal. Nov. 7, 2008). Prisons must provide care to comply with the Constitution's prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment. A U. S. District Court in California required the state to expend funds on the prison health care system because it was otherwise incapable of complying with the ban on cruel and unusual punishment.
10. See infra Part II.
11. See KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE KAISER COMMISSION ON MEDICAID AND THE UNINSURED, THE ROLE OF EMPLOYER-SPONSORED HEALTH COVERAGE FOR IMMIGRANTS: A PRIMER 5 (2006), http://www.kif.org/uninsured/upload/7524.pdf (stating that 78% of the uninsured are native or naturalized U. S. Citizens).
12. KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE KAISER COMMISSION ON MEDICAID AND THE UNINSURED, IMMIGRANTS AND HEALTH CARE COVERAGE: A PRIMER 1 (2004), http://www.kff.org/uninsured/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile. cfm&PageID=44 857;
13. see also MICHAEL HOEFER, NANCY RYTINA, & CHRISTOPHER CAMPBELL, U. S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2006 1 (2007), available at http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/ publications/ill-pe-2006.pdf.
14. KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE ROLE OF EMPLOYER-SPONSORED HEALTH COVERAGE, supra note 9, at 1.
15. See id.
16. See id.
17. See id.
18. Id.
19. Id. at 2.
20. Id.
21. Neda Mahmoudzadeh, Love Them, Love Them Not: The Reflection of Anti-Immigrant Attitudes in Un-documented Immigrant Health Care Law, 9 Scholar 465, 481 n. 82 (2007) (referencing 8 U. S. C. § 1601 (2) (B) (2000)) ("It continues to be the immigration policy of the United States that... the availability of public benefits not constitute an incentive for immigration to the United States') ;
22. see also MICHAEL E. FIX & JEFFREY S. PASSEL, THE URBAN INSTITUTE, THE SCOPE AND IMPACT OF WELFARE REFORM'S IMMIGRANT PROVISIONS 3 (2002), http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410412-discussion02-03.pdf ("At the time of welfare reform's passage, some researchers contended that the availability of public benefits was increasingly influencing immigrants' migration decisions-").
23. 8 U. S. C. § 1601 (6) (2000).
24. See generally Mark L. Berk et al., Health Care Use Among Undocumented Latino Immigrants, HEALTH AFFAIRS, July-Aug. 2000, at 51, 56.
25. Id.
26. See id. at 56.
27. Id.
28. See id. at 51.
29. Id.at 56.
30. Dana Canedy, Hospitals Feeling Strain from Illegal Immigrants, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 22, 2002, available at http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html? sec=health&res=950DE6DB133CF936Al575BCO A9649C8B63.
31. See Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-193, 110 Stat. 2105.
32. SHAWN FREMSTAD & LAURA COX, THE KAISER COMMISSION ON MEDICAID AND THE UNINSURED, COVERING NEW AMERICANS: A REVIEW OF FEDERAL AND STATE POLICIES RELATED TO IMMIGRANTS' ELIGIBILITY AND ACCESS TO PUBLICLY FUNDED HEALTH INSURANCE ii (2004), http://www.kff.org/medicaid/7214.cfm.
33. See id. (noting that California, New York, Florida, Massachusetts, Maryland and Virginia all provide state-funded coverage to immigrants).
34. See Deborah Sontag, Immigrants Facing Deportation by U. S. Hospitals, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 3, 2008, at Al, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/03/ us/03deport.html?ref=us.
35. See id.
36. See id.
37. See Francine J. Lipman, Taxing Undocumented Immigrants: Separate, Unequal and Without Representation, 59 TAX LAW. 813, 816 (2006).
38. See id.
39. Mahmoudzadeh, supra note 17, at 484 (citing Eduardo Porter, Illegal Immigrants Are Bolstering Social Security With Billions, N. Y. TIMES, Apr. 5, 2005, at Al, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/05/business/ 05immigration. html).
40. See Lipman, supra note 33, at 816.
41. Laurence C. Baker & Linda Shuurman Baker, Excess Cost of Emergency Department Visits for Nonurgent Care, HEALTH AFFAIRS, Winter 1994, at 162 (charges for emergency room visits were two to three times more than other visits....) ;
42. see also Jim Yardley, Immigrants' Medical Care Is Focus of Texas Debate, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 12, 2001, at A18, available at http://query.nytimes.com/gst/ fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9E0lElDBl03FF93lA2575BCO A9679C8B63 (quoting an estimate that emergency care could cost "four to ten times" as much as routine medical care).
43. See id.; Alan Zarembo & Anna Gorman, Citizenship Often Determines Who Gets Medical Care, L. A. TIMES, Oct. 29, 2008, available at http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-dialysis29-2008oct29, 0, 4485373, full.story (noting that some states choose to cover dialysis treatments rather than admit patients with more expensive diagnoses in the emergency room).
44. See infra Part I.
45. Seam Park, Substantial Barriers in Illegal Immigrant Access to Publicly-Funded Health Care: Reasons and Recommendations for Change, 18 GEO. IMMIGR. L. J. 567, 581 (2004).
46. Julia Field Costich, Legislating a Public Health Nightmare: The Anti-Immigrant Provisions of the "Contract with America" Congress, 90 KY. L. J. 1043 (2002).
47. Alan Jenkins & Kevin Shawn Hsu, American Ideals & Human Rights, 77 FORDHAM L. REV. 439 (2008).
48. See Alexandro Vivero Neill, Human Rights Don't Stop at the Border: Why Texas Should Provide Preventative Health Care for Undocumented Immigrants, 4 SCHOLAR 405, 425 (2002).
49. Id.
50. Universal Declaration on Human Rights, GA. Res. 217A, at 71, art. 25 (1), U. N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg., U. N. Doc A/810 (Dec. 10, 1948) ("Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family....";
51. see also CONSTITUTION OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 1, available at http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who-constitution-en. pdf ("the enjoyment of the highest standard of attainable health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being....").
52. See Texas v. United States, No. B-94-228, slip. op. (S. D. Tex. Aug. 7, 1995), aff'd, No. 95-40721 (5th Cir. Feb. 28, 1997) ;
53. Arizona v. United States, No. 94-0866, slip. op. (D. Ariz. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d 1095 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
54. Padavan v. United States, No. 94-CV-1341, slip. op. (N. D. N. Y. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 82 F.3d 23 (2d Cir. 1996) ;
55. California v. United States, No. 94-0674-K, slip. op. (S. D. Cal. Mar. 3, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d. 1086 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
56. Chiles v. United States, 874 F. Supp. 1334 (S. D. Fla. 1994), affd, 69 F.3d 1094 (11th Cir. 1995), cert, denied, 517 U. S. 1188 (1996).
57. See Doe v. Plyler 458 F. Supp. 569 (1978) ;
58. Matthews v. Diaz, 426 U. S. 67 (1976).
59. See Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009 (enacted as Division C of the 1997 Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act).
60. See id.; Mahmoudzadeh, supra note 18, at 470 (2007).
61. Id.
62. Id.
63. Id.
64. See Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-193, 110 Stat. 2105.
65. See Mahmoudzadeh supra note 18, at 471.
66. Id.
67. see 42 U. S. CA. § 611 (West 1996) ("Each State to which a grant is made under section 603 of this title shall, at least 4 times annually and upon request of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, furnish the Immigration and Naturalization Service with the name and address of, and other identifying information on, any individual who the State knows is unlawfully in the United States.").
68. See 8 U. S. CA. § 1612 (a) (1), (3) (West 2001) ;
69. Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-93, 110 Stat. 2105;
70. see Recent Legislation, Welfare Reform - Treatment of Illegal Immigrants - Congress Authorizes States to Deny Public Benefits to Noncitizens and Excludes Legal Immigrants from Federal Aid Programs, 110 HARV. L. REV. 1191, 1192 (1997) (noting "section 402 (b) authorizes states to determine the eligibility of... a qualified alien [legal immigrant] for any designated Federal program").
71. Id.
72. See N. Y. Soc. SERV. LAW § 122 (2002) ;
73. MD. CODE. ANN., HEALTH § 15-103 (a) (2) (vii) (2008) ;
74. Tricia A. Bozek, Immigrants, Health Care, and the Constitution: Medicaid Cuts in Maryland Suggest that Legal Immigrants Do Not Deserve the Equal Protection of the Law, 36 U. BALT. L. REV. 77, 86 (2006).
75. Press Release, National Immigration Law Center, Aliessa et al. v. Novello: N. Y. Law Restricting Immigrants' Eligibility for State Medical Aid Found Unconstitutional (June 29, 2001), available at http://www.nilc.org/ immspbs/health/health011.htm;
76. see also N. Y. Soc. SERV. LAW § 122 (2002).
77. See Md. CODE. ANN., HEALTH § 15-103 (a) (2) (vii) (2008) ;
78. Bozek, supra note 58.
79. Ehrlich v. Perez, 908 A.2d 1220 (Md. 2006) ; a
80. Aliessa v. Novello, 754 N. E.2d 1085 (N. Y. 2001).
81. Ehrlich v. Perez, 908 A.2d 1220 (Md. 2006).
82. Id.
83. Aliessa v. Novello, 754 N. E.2d 1085 (N. Y. 2001).
84. See Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-193, 110 Stat. 2105.
85. FREMSTAD & Cox, supra note 28, at ii.
86. United States Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, National SCHIP Policy Overview, http://www.cms.hhs.gov/NationalSCHIPPolicy/(last visited Mar. 20, 2009).
87. 42 C. F. R. § 457.10 (2004) ;
88. see Press Release, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services, States May Provide SCHIP Coverage for Prenatal Care (Sept. 27, 2002), http://www.hhs.gov/news/2002pres/20020927a.html.
89. Id.
90. See Diane Aguilar, Using SCHIP to Offer Prenatal Care to Undocumented and Non-Qualified Immigrants in Wisconsin: The Benefits, Risks, and Shortcomings, 20 WIS. WOMEN'S L. J. 263, 264 (2005).
91. See id.
92. 42 C. F. R. § 457. 10 (2004).
93. Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-3, 123 Stat. 8.
94. Robert Pear, House Votes to Expand Children's Health Care, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 14, 2009, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/15/washington/ 15healthcare.html?scp=2&sq=schip&st=cse.
95. Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-3, 123 Stat. 8, § 211.
96. The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act, 42 U. S. C. § 1395dd (2000).
97. See id. at sec. 1395dd (a), a hospital must screen "any individual (whether or not eligible for benefits under this subchapter)...."
98. See id.
99. See id.
100. 42 U. S. C. § 1395dd (a) - (b) (2000).
101. See id.
102. Id. at § 1395dd (e) (l). Additionally, with respect to a pregnant woman "who is having contractions - (i) that there is inadequate time to effect a safe transfer to another hospital before delivery, or (ii) that transfer may pose a threat to the health or safety of the woman or the newborn child."
103. Id. at § 1395dd (e) (3) (B).
104. Diaz v. Div. of Soc. Serv. & Div. of Med. Assistance, 628 S. E.2d 1, 5 (N. C. 2006).
105. See Mahmoudzadeh, supra note 18, at 476.
106. Alan Zarembo & Anna Gorman, Citizenship Often Determines Who Gets Medical Care, LA. TIMES, Oct. 29, 2008, available at http://www.latimes.com/ news/local/la-me-dialysis29-2008oct29, O, 4.485373, full.story.
107. Id.
108. Id.
109. Id.
110. Canedy, supra note 26 (noting that states with high rates of illegal immigration have high burdens placed on hospitals from illegal immigrants that use emergency rooms as a principle source of care).
111. See generally Berk et. al., supra note 20, at 51;
112. see also Mary Engel, Latinos' Use of Health Services Studied, LA. TIMES, Nov. 27, 2007, at B-1 (noting that illegal immigrants were 50% less likely to use emergency rooms than native born citizens, contrary to the argument that illegal immigrants' overuse of hospital emergency rooms causes emergency room closures).
113. Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-171, 120 Stat. 4.
114. Medicaid Coverage Dwindles: New Law Takes Toll, Adds Complexity to Patient Access, HEALTHCARE REGISTRATION Apr. 2007, at 1.
115. See id.
116. See id.
117. Svetlana Lebedinski, EMTALA: Treatment of Undocumented Aliens and the Financial Burden it Places on Hospitals, 7 J. L. SOC'Y 146, 161 (2005).
118. Canedy, supra note 26;
119. see also Sontag, Immigrants Facing Deportation, supra note 30.
120. See Canedy, supra note 26.
121. See id.
122. Sontag, Immigrants Facing Deportation, supra note 30, at A1.
123. Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Illegal Aliens and American Medicine, 10 J. AM. PHYSICIANS & SURGEONS 6 (2005) (suggesting that one of the country's best emergency medical response organizations, Los Angeles Country Trauma Network, was mostly dismantled as a result of EMTALA and the burden illegal immigrants place on it).
124. Svetlana Lebedinski, EMTALA: Treatment of Undocumented Aliens and the Financial Burden it Places on Hospitals, 7 J. L. SOC'Y 146, 161 (2005).
125. Deborah Sontag, Getting Tough - Deported in a Coma, Saved Back in the U. S., N. Y. TIMES, Nov. 9, 2008, at A1, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/ ll/09/us/09deport.html?scp=l&sq=deported%20in%20a%20 coma&st=cse.
126. Id.
127. Id.
128. Sontag, Immigrants Facing Deportation, supra note 30.
129. Id.
130. Canedy, supra note 26.
131. Sontag, Immigrants Facing Deportation, supra note 30.
132. See id.
133. Sontag, Deported in a Coma, supra note 103.
134. Id.
135. Id.
136. Id.
137. Id.
138. Id.
139. Id.
140. Id.
141. Id.
142. See Bruce Patsner, Repatriation of Uninsured Immigrants by US. Hospitals: The Jimenez Case, HEALTH LAW PERSPECTIVES, Dec. 16 2008, http://www.law.uh.edu/ heal thlaw/perspectives/2008/(BP) %20deport.pdf.
143. Montejo v. Martin Mem. Med. Ctr. Inc., 874 So. 2d 654 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2004).
144. Id. at 657 (citing 42 U. S. C. § 1395X (ee) (2008) and 42 C. F. R. § 482.43 (2009)).
145. Id.
146. See Patsner, supra note 120.
147. Id.
148. Id. at 4.
149. See Mahmoudzadeh supra note 18, at 477.
150. See Robert Pear, United States Is Linking Status of Aliens to Hospital Aid, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 10, 2004, at A1, available at http://query.nytimes.com/ gst/fullpage.html?res=9903E2DDlE3CF933A2575BC0A9629C8B6 3 (identifying which states were given federal aid to relieve the economic burden that illegal immigrants place on local hospitals).
151. See Eric Benson, States Lead the Way on Health Insurance Reform, 35 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 329, 329 (2007).
152. See id.
153. Id.
154. Massachusetts Commonwealth Connector, Overview, http://www. mahealthconnector.org/portal/site/connector/menuitem.a6bd9ea72595da2ea87b 5f57c639804l/?fiShown=default (last visited Mar. 20, 2009).
155. See Benson supra note 129, at 329.
156. Id.
157. Id.
158. COMMONWEALTH CONNECTOR, FACTS AND FIGURES 3 (2008), http://www. mahealthconnector.org/portal/site/connector/menuitem.d7b34e88a23468a2dbef 6f47d7468aOc?fiShown=default.
159. Id.
160. SHARON LONG, ALLISON COOK & KAREN STOCKLEY, URBAN INSTITUTE, MASSACHUSETTS DIVISION OF HEALTH CARE FINANCE AND POLICY, HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE IN MASSACHUSETTS: ESTIMATES FROM THE 2008 MASSACHUSETTS HEALTH INSURANCE SURVEY 3 (2008), http://www.mahealthconnector.org/portal/site/ connector/menuitem.d7b34e88a23468a2dbef 6f47d7468aOc?fiShown=default.
161. 5 CMR 17.00 (2008), available at http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dhcfp/ g/regs/114-5-17.pdf.
162. KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE ROLE OF EMPLOYER-SPONSORED HEALTH COVERAGE FOR IMMIGRANTS, supra note 9.
163. Benson, supra note 129, at 330.
164. Id.
165. Id.
166. Id.
167. See THE BARACK OBAMA HEALTH CARE PLAN, supra note 1.
168. Id.
169. Id.
170. Id.
171. Id.
172. See William P. Gunnar, The Fundamental Law That Shapes the United States Health Care System: Is Universal Health Care Realistic Within the Established Paradigm?, 15 ANNALS HEALTH L. 151, 155 (2006).
173. Id.
174. Id. at 156.
175. Id. at 156.
176. See Matthews v. Diaz, 426 U. S. 67, 79-80 (1976) ;
177. Reno v. Flores, 507 U. S. 292, 306 (1993) ;
178. Lewis v. Thompson, 252 F.3d 567 (2d Cir. 2001).
179. Lewis v. Thompson, 252 F.3d 567 (2d Cir. 2001).
180. Id. (quoting Matthews v. Diaz, 426 U. S. at 79-80).
181. Reno v. Flores, 507 U. S. at 306.
182. Matthews v. Diaz, 426 U. S. at 79-80.
183. Id. at 81.
184. Lake v. Reno, 226 F.3d 141, 148 (2d Cir. 2000).
185. Heller v. Doe, 509 U. S. 312, 320 (1993).
186. Madden v. Kentucky, 209 U. S. 83, 88 (1940).
187. Lewis v. Thompson, 252 F.3d 567, 583 (2d Cir. 2001).
188. Id.
189. See Aleman v. Glickman, 217 F.3d 1191 (9th Cir. 2000) (denial of food stamps to certain divorced aliens) ;
190. City of Chicago v. Shalala, 189 F.3d 598 (7th Cir. 1999) (denial of food stamps, supplemental security income, and other income benefits) ;
191. Rodriguez v. United States, 169 F.3d 1342 (11th Cir. 1999) (denial of food stamps and supplemental security income) ;
192. see also Kiev v. Glickman, 991 F. Supp. 1090 (D. Minn. 1998) ;
193. Abreu v. Callahan 971 F. Supp. 799 (S. D. N. Y. 1997).
194. See generally Tamra Boyd, Keeping the Constitution's Promise: An Argument for Greater Judicial Scrutiny of Federal Alienage Classifications, 54 STAN. L. REV. 319 (2001).
195. Aliessa v. Novello, 754 N. E.2d 1085 (N. Y. 2001).
196. Id.; see also N. Y. Soc. SERV. LAW § 122 (2002).
197. Aliessa v. Novello, 754 N. E.2d at 1098-99.
198. Plyler v. Doe, 457 U. S. 202, 230 (1982).
199. U. S. CONST, art. I, § 8.
200. See South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U. S. 203, 207 (1987).
201. Alison Fee, Forbidding States from Providing Essential Social Services to Illegal Immigrants: The Constitutionality of Recent Federal Action, 7 B. U. PUB. INT. L. J. 93, 99 (1998).
202. See id.
203. See Texas v. United States, No. B-94-228, slip. op. (S. D. Tex. Aug. 7, 1995), aff'd, No. 95-40721 (5th Cir. Feb. 28, 1997) ;
204. Arizona v. United States, No. 94-0866, slip. op. (D. Ariz. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d 1095 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
205. Padavan v. United States, No. 94-CV-1341, slip. op. (N. D. N. Y. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 82 F.3d 23 (2d Cir. 1996) ;
206. California v. United States, No. 94-0674-K, slip. op. (S. D. Cal. Mar. 3, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d. 1086 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
207. Chiles v. United States, 874 F. Supp. 1334 (S. D. Fla. 1994),
208. affd, 69 F.3d 1094 (11th Cir. 1995),
209. cert. denied, 517 U. S. 1188 (1996).
210. See Texas v. United States, No. B-94-228, slip. op. (S. D. Tex. Aug. 7, 1995), affd, No. 95-40721 (5th Cir. Feb. 28, 1997) ;
211. Arizona v. United States, No. 94-0866, slip. op. (D. Ariz. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d 1095 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
212. Padavan v. United States, No. 94-CV-1341, slip. op. (N. D. N. Y. Apr. 18, 1995), affd, 82 F.3d 23 (2d Cir. 1996) ;
213. California v. United States, No. 94-0674-K, slip. op. (S. D. Cal. Mar. 3, 1995), affd, 104 F.3d. 1086 (9th Cir. 1997) ;
214. Chiles v. United States, 874 F. Supp. 1334 (S. D. Fla. 1994),
215. affd, 69 F.3d 1094 (11th Cir. 1995),
216. cert. denied, 517 U. S. 1188 (1996).
217. California v. United States, 104 F.3d 1086, 1090 (9th Cir. 1997).
218. Id. at 1089.
219. Id. at 1090.
220. Id. at 1091.
221. Id.
222. See Chiles v. United States, 874 F. Supp. 1334, 1334 (S. D. Fla. 1994).
223. Id.
224. See Texas v. United States, No. 95-40721, 3-4 (5th Cir. Feb. 28, 1994).
225. See U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY, OFFICE OF IMMIGRATION STATISTICS, ESTIMATES OF THE UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRANT POPULATION RESIDING IN THE UNITED STATES: JANUARY 2006 1 (2007), http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/ statistics/publications/ill-pe-2006.pdf (noting that illegal immigration rates continue to climb).
226. See supra Part II.
227. See supra Part I.
228. See Costich supra note 41, at 1043.
229. KAISER FAMILY FOUNDATION, THE ROLE OF EMPLOYER-SPONSORED HEALTH COVERAGE FOR IMMIGRANTS, supra note 9, at 1.
230. See supra Part I.
231. Sean Lengell, Waxman to Push '09 Health Care Reform, WASH. TIMES, Jan. 30, 2009, available at http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jan/30/waxman- to-push-09-health-care-reform/.
232. See supra Part I.
233. See supra Part I.