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Volumn 93, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 2205-2239

Defogging the cloud: Applying fourth amendment principles to evolving privacy expectations in cloud computing

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EID: 67749135663     PISSN: 00265535     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (27)

References (238)
  • 2
    • 67749123847 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. See generally Tim O'Reilly, What Is Web 2.0, O'REILLY NETWORK, Sept. 30, 2005, http://www.oreillynet.eom/ lpt/a/6228 (explaining what the term Web 2.0 encompasses).
    • Id. See generally Tim O'Reilly, What Is Web 2.0, O'REILLY NETWORK, Sept. 30, 2005, http://www.oreillynet.eom/ lpt/a/6228 (explaining what the term "Web 2.0" encompasses).
  • 3
    • 67749119542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Galen Gruman & Eric Knorr, What Cloud Computing Really Means, INFOWORLD, Apr. 7, 2008, http://www.infoworld.com/article/08/04/07/ 15FE-cloud-computing-reality-l.html (describing the cloud metaphor and the various definitions of cloud computing which include Internet-based applications and storage services); Erick Schonfeld, IBM's Blue Cloud Is Web Computing By Another Name, TECHCRUNCH, NOV. 15, 2007, http://www .techcrunch.com/2007/ll/15/ibms-blue-cloud-is-web-computng-by-another-name (giving examples of companies such as Amazon, Google, Yahoo, and IBM using massive server farms to support remote online storage and applications).
    • See, e.g., Galen Gruman & Eric Knorr, What Cloud Computing Really Means, INFOWORLD, Apr. 7, 2008, http://www.infoworld.com/article/08/04/07/ 15FE-cloud-computing-reality-l.html (describing the "cloud" metaphor and the various definitions of "cloud computing" which include Internet-based applications and storage services); Erick Schonfeld, IBM's Blue Cloud Is Web Computing By Another Name, TECHCRUNCH, NOV. 15, 2007, http://www .techcrunch.com/2007/ll/15/ibms-blue-cloud-is-web-computng-by-another-name (giving examples of companies such as Amazon, Google, Yahoo, and IBM using "massive server farms" to support remote online storage and applications).
  • 4
    • 67749137000 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Grant Gross, Cloud Computing May Draw Government Action, INFO-WOELD, Sept. 12, 2008, http://www.infoworld.com/article/ 08/09/12/Cloud-computing-may-draw-government-action-l.html (quoting Ari Schwartz, Vice President and Chief Operating Officer of the Center for Democracy and Technology).
    • Grant Gross, Cloud Computing May Draw Government Action, INFO-WOELD, Sept. 12, 2008, http://www.infoworld.com/article/ 08/09/12/Cloud-computing-may-draw-government-action-l.html (quoting Ari Schwartz, Vice President and Chief Operating Officer of the Center for Democracy and Technology).
  • 5
    • 67749128928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 29 (2001) (addressing the use of thermal-imaging devices to search a home); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 352-53 (1967) (applying Fourth Amendment protections to telephone calls).
    • See, e.g., Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 29 (2001) (addressing the use of thermal-imaging devices to "search" a home); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 352-53 (1967) (applying Fourth Amendment protections to telephone calls).
  • 6
    • 67749090690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 352-53.
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 352-53.
  • 7
    • 67749127124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
    • Id. at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
  • 9
    • 84869585225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, the Pew Internet and American Life Project recently released the results of a comprehensive survey regarding the use of cloud-computing applications and services which found that forty-nine percent of cloud-computing users in the United States would be very concerned if cloud service providers shared their files with law enforcement, while another fifteen percent of respondents said they would be somewhat concerned. Memorandum from John B. Horrigan, Assoc. Dir., Pew Internet & Am. Life Project 2, 6-7 (Sept. 2008), http://www.pewinternet.Org/̃/media//Files/ Reports/2008/ PIP-Cloud.Memo.pdf.pdf [hereinafter Horrigan, Cloud Survey].
    • For example, the Pew Internet and American Life Project recently released the results of a comprehensive survey regarding the use of cloud-computing applications and services which found that forty-nine percent of cloud-computing users in the United States would be "very concerned" if cloud service providers shared their files with law enforcement, while another fifteen percent of respondents said they would be "somewhat concerned." Memorandum from John B. Horrigan, Assoc. Dir., Pew Internet & Am. Life Project 2, 6-7 (Sept. 2008), http://www.pewinternet.Org/̃/media//Files/ Reports/2008/ PIP-Cloud.Memo.pdf.pdf [hereinafter Horrigan, Cloud Survey].
  • 10
    • 57449096592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Achal Oza, Note, Amend the ECPA- Fourth Amendment Protection Erodes as E-mails Get Dusty, 88 B.U.L. REV. 1043 (2008) (arguing that technology has outpaced the decades-old provisions of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986).
    • See, e.g., Achal Oza, Note, Amend the ECPA- Fourth Amendment Protection Erodes as E-mails Get Dusty, 88 B.U.L. REV. 1043 (2008) (arguing that technology has outpaced the decades-old provisions of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986).
  • 12
    • 67749137001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id..
  • 13
    • 39149122097 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S. 27
    • Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 40 (2001).
    • (2001) United States , vol.533 , pp. 40
    • Kyllo, V.1
  • 14
    • 67749103388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 361 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring);
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 361 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring);
  • 15
    • 84869565252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see Minnesota v. Carter, 525 U.S. 83, 97 (1998) ([The] Katz test⋯ has come to mean the test enunciated by Justice Harlan's separate concurrence in Katz..).
    • see Minnesota v. Carter, 525 U.S. 83, 97 (1998) ("[The] Katz test⋯ has come to mean the test enunciated by Justice Harlan's separate concurrence in Katz..").
  • 16
    • 67749095526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
  • 17
    • 67749099189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435, 442-43 (1976) (bank records); Couch v. United States, 409 U.S. 322, 335-36 (1973) (business and tax records).
    • See, e.g., United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435, 442-43 (1976) (bank records); Couch v. United States, 409 U.S. 322, 335-36 (1973) (business and tax records).
  • 18
    • 67749101643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
  • 19
    • 84869566856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., California v. Ciraolo, 476 U.S. 207, 211 (1986); Renée McDonald Hutchins, Tied Up in Knotts? GPS Technology and the Fourth Amendment, 55 UCLAL. REV. 409, 427 (2007) (citing Kyllo, 533 U.S. at 32).
    • E.g., California v. Ciraolo, 476 U.S. 207, 211 (1986); Renée McDonald Hutchins, Tied Up in Knotts? GPS Technology and the Fourth Amendment, 55 UCLAL. REV. 409, 427 (2007) (citing Kyllo, 533 U.S. at 32).
  • 20
    • 67749107698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 811-12 (1982) ([CJlosed packages and containers may not be searched without a warrant.).
    • See United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 811-12 (1982) ("[CJlosed packages and containers may not be searched without a warrant.").
  • 21
    • 67749143464 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, in some circumstances a person has a reasonable expectation of privacy in the content of their telephone conversations even though the Fourth Amendment does not refer to intangibles. Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman, 365 U.S. at 511).
    • For example, in some circumstances a person has a reasonable expectation of privacy in the content of their telephone conversations even though the Fourth Amendment does not refer to intangibles. Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman, 365 U.S. at 511).
  • 22
    • 67749133264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court has noted that the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places. Id. at 351.
    • The Supreme Court has noted that "the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places." Id. at 351.
  • 24
    • 67749117689 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515, 1519 (11th Cir. 1983).
    • See United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515, 1519 (11th Cir. 1983).
  • 25
    • 67749092784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
  • 26
    • 67749138812 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id..
  • 27
    • 67749113054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bond, 529 U.S. at 338.
    • Bond, 529 U.S. at 338.
  • 28
    • 67749100980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Murdock v. State, 664 P.2d 589, 598 (Alaska Ct. App. 1983) ([The petitioner] had a reasonable expectation of privacy in the property stored [in a rented locker] at the YMCA.);
    • See Murdock v. State, 664 P.2d 589, 598 (Alaska Ct. App. 1983) ("[The petitioner] had a reasonable expectation of privacy in the property stored [in a rented locker] at the YMCA.");
  • 29
    • 84869553952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ferris v. State, 640 S.W.2d 636, 638 (Tex. App. 1982) (Under proper circumstances, a storage locker is a place entitled to Fourth Amendment⋯ protection.).
    • Ferris v. State, 640 S.W.2d 636, 638 (Tex. App. 1982) ("Under proper circumstances, a storage locker is a place entitled to Fourth Amendment⋯ protection.").
  • 30
    • 67749087927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218, 235 (1973) ([I]n the case of a lawful custodial arrest a full search of the person [incident to that arrest] is not only an exception to the warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment, but is also a 'reasonable' search under that Amendment.).
    • See, e.g., United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218, 235 (1973) ("[I]n the case of a lawful custodial arrest a full search of the person [incident to that arrest] is not only an exception to the warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment, but is also a 'reasonable' search under that Amendment.").
  • 31
    • 67749128929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128, 141 n.ll (1990) (stating that the seizure of a container does not compromise the privacy interests in its contents because it still cannot be opened without a search warrant unless one of the exceptions to the warrant requirement applies) (citing Smith v. Ohio, 494 U.S. 541 (1990)).
    • See, e.g., Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128, 141 n.ll (1990) (stating that the seizure of a container does not compromise the privacy interests in its contents because it still cannot be opened without a search warrant unless one of the exceptions to the warrant requirement applies) (citing Smith v. Ohio, 494 U.S. 541 (1990)).
  • 32
    • 67749136998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 822 (1982) (noting that for purposes of the Fourth Amendment, the most frail cottage in the kingdom is absolutely entitled to the same guarantees of privacy as the most majestic mansion, and thus a traveler's toothbrush and clothing carried in a paper bag or scarf should not be treated any differently than a sophisticated executive with a locked briefcase (citing Miller v. United States, 357 U.S. 301, 307 (1958))).
    • United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 822 (1982) (noting that for purposes of the Fourth Amendment, "the most frail cottage in the kingdom is absolutely entitled to the same guarantees of privacy as the most majestic mansion," and thus a traveler's toothbrush and clothing carried in a paper bag or scarf should not be treated any differently than a "sophisticated executive" with a locked briefcase (citing Miller v. United States, 357 U.S. 301, 307 (1958))).
  • 33
    • 67749138813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bond, 529 U.S. at 338.
    • Bond, 529 U.S. at 338.
  • 34
    • 67749101648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 338-39
    • Id. at 338-39.
  • 35
    • 67749107841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 11 (1977) (recognizing that an expectation of privacy in a double-locked footlocker is no less reasonable than the expectations of one who locks his house to keep out intruders), abrogated by California v. Acevedo, 500 U.S. 565 (1991) (holding that it is con-stitutionally permissible for police to search a closed container in a car if probable cause exists);
    • See, e.g., United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 11 (1977) (recognizing that an expectation of privacy in a double-locked footlocker is no less reasonable than the expectations of one who locks his house to keep out intruders), abrogated by California v. Acevedo, 500 U.S. 565 (1991) (holding that it is con-stitutionally permissible for police to search a closed container in a car if probable cause exists);
  • 36
    • 67749107842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Kelly, 913 F.2d 261, 265 (6th Cir. 1990) ([A]bsent exigent circumstances or consent, an officer is not to search a locked suitcase without a search warrant.).
    • United States v. Kelly, 913 F.2d 261, 265 (6th Cir. 1990) ("[A]bsent exigent circumstances or consent, an officer is not to search a locked suitcase without a search warrant.").
  • 37
    • 67749136999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39;
    • See Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39;
  • 38
    • 67749115842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also United States v. Bosby, 675 F.2d 1174, 1180 (11th Cir. 1982) (Absent exigent circumstances, closed containers such as a briefcase or pieces of personal luggage even if unlocked cannot be searched absent a warrant.).
    • see also United States v. Bosby, 675 F.2d 1174, 1180 (11th Cir. 1982) ("Absent exigent circumstances, closed containers such as a briefcase or pieces of personal luggage even if unlocked cannot be searched absent a warrant.").
  • 39
    • 67749086140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For this reason, the reasonable-expectation-of-privacy test has been criticized as being too subjective and having limited predictive value. E.g., James X. Dempsey, Digital Search & Seizure: Updating Privacy Protections to Keep Pace with Technology, in 2 NINTH ANNUAL INSTITUTE ON PRIVACY AND SECURITY LAW 543, 552 (2008).
    • For this reason, the reasonable-expectation-of-privacy test has been criticized as being too subjective and having "limited predictive value." E.g., James X. Dempsey, Digital Search & Seizure: Updating Privacy Protections to Keep Pace with Technology, in 2 NINTH ANNUAL INSTITUTE ON PRIVACY AND SECURITY LAW 543, 552 (2008).
  • 40
    • 67749086137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although a person might maintain a reasonable expectation of privacy in an unlocked but closed container, some containers so betray their contents as to abrogate any such expectation and are treated as being in plain view. United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 1st Cir. 2005, citations omitted, In Meada, the First Circuit held that a container with a GUN GUARD label on the outside made it reasonably identifiable as a gun case, rendering the contents unambiguous and destroying the defendant's reasonable expectation of privacy. Id
    • Although a person might maintain a reasonable expectation of privacy in an unlocked but closed container, "some containers so betray their contents as to abrogate any such expectation" and "are treated as being in plain view." United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 (1st Cir. 2005) (citations omitted). In Meada, the First Circuit held that a container with a "GUN GUARD" label on the outside made it reasonably identifiable as a gun case, rendering the contents unambiguous and destroying the defendant's reasonable expectation of privacy. Id..
  • 41
    • 67749135139 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 351, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 351, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
  • 42
    • 67749087925 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 353 (quoting New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985)).
    • Id. at 353 (quoting New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985)).
  • 43
    • 67749139341 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 44
    • 67749117688 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515, 1519 (11th Cir. 1983). The briefcase in Freire was unlocked as well. Id. at 1518.
    • United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515, 1519 (11th Cir. 1983). The briefcase in Freire was unlocked as well. Id. at 1518.
  • 45
    • 67749115843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 1519
    • Id. at 1519.
  • 46
    • 67749143466 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 47
    • 38949083590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S. 334
    • Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000).
    • (2000) United States , vol.529 , pp. 338-339
    • Bond, V.1
  • 48
    • 67749092785 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146, 150 (10th Cir. 1986) (holding that luggage left in a motel room retains Fourth Amendment protection even if the checkout time has passed and the motel had a legal right to forcibly evict the hold-over guest).
    • See, e.g., United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146, 150 (10th Cir. 1986) (holding that luggage left in a motel room retains Fourth Amendment protection even if the checkout time has passed and the motel had a legal right to forcibly evict the hold-over guest).
  • 49
    • 0346049102 scopus 로고
    • U.S. 347
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967).
    • (1967) United States , vol.389 , pp. 351
    • Katz, V.1
  • 50
    • 67749133266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S. CONST, amend. IV
    • U.S. CONST, amend. IV.
  • 51
    • 67749114036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
  • 52
    • 67749092787 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 348
    • id. at 348.
  • 53
    • 67749087926 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 54
    • 67749139342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 359
    • id. at 359.
  • 55
    • 67749143467 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 352
    • id. at 352.
  • 56
    • 67749100979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 353 (quoting Silverman, 365 U.S. at 511).
    • Id. at 353 (quoting Silverman, 365 U.S. at 511).
  • 57
    • 67749133263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, in Maes v. Folberg, 504 F. Supp. 2d 339, 347 (N.D. 111. 2007), an Illinois federal district court found that the plaintiff, a state employee, had a reasonable expectation of privacy in her government-issued laptop computer because there was no evidence that the plaintiff was on notice that her laptop was subject to search. The court relied upon O'Connor v. Ortega, which held that government employees are protected from unreasonable searches by their government employers. Maes, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 347-48 (citing O'Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709, 715-16, 725-26 (1987));
    • For example, in Maes v. Folberg, 504 F. Supp. 2d 339, 347 (N.D. 111. 2007), an Illinois federal district court found that the plaintiff, a state employee, had a reasonable expectation of privacy in her government-issued laptop computer because there was no evidence that the plaintiff was on notice that her laptop was subject to search. The court relied upon O'Connor v. Ortega, which held that government employees are protected from unreasonable searches by their government employers. Maes, 504 F. Supp. 2d at 347-48 (citing O'Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709, 715-16, 725-26 (1987));
  • 58
    • 67749090689 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • cf. Muick v. Glenayre Elecs., 280 F.3d 741, 743 (7th Cir. 2002) (holding that plaintiff's privacy expectation was destroyed because his government employer announced that it could inspect the laptops that it furnished for the use of its employees).
    • cf. Muick v. Glenayre Elecs., 280 F.3d 741, 743 (7th Cir. 2002) (holding that plaintiff's privacy expectation was destroyed because his government employer "announced that it could inspect the laptops that it furnished for the use of its employees").
  • 59
    • 67749128927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
    • United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
  • 60
    • 67749087924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. But see Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http:// volokh.com/posts/1225159904.shtml (Oct. 27, 2008, 22:11) ([T]he Government failed to make the strongest argument that running the hash isn't a search: If the hash is for a known image of child pornography, then running a hash is a direct analog to a drug-sniffing dog in Illinois v. Caballes, 543 U.S. 405 (2005).).
    • Id. But see Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http:// volokh.com/posts/1225159904.shtml (Oct. 27, 2008, 22:11) ("[T]he Government failed to make the strongest argument that running the hash isn't a search: If the hash is for a known image of child pornography, then running a hash is a direct analog to a drug-sniffing dog in Illinois v. Caballes, 543 U.S. 405 (2005).").
  • 61
    • 67749133265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crist, 2008 WL 4682806, at *10.
    • Crist, 2008 WL 4682806, at *10.
  • 62
    • 67749119543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 63
    • 67749092786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring);
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring);
  • 64
    • 67749085780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also, e.g., Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000);
    • see also, e.g., Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000);
  • 65
    • 67749117690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004).
  • 66
    • 67749107694 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39;
    • See, e.g., Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39;
  • 67
    • 67749100978 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Little Rock Sch. Dist, 380 F.3d at 353 (citing New Jersey v. T.L.O. 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985)).
    • Little Rock Sch. Dist, 380 F.3d at 353 (citing New Jersey v. T.L.O. 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985)).
  • 68
    • 67749132314 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39.
    • See Bond, 529 U.S. at 338-39.
  • 69
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 20 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 20 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 70
    • 67749128926 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 352.
    • See Katz, 389 U.S. at 352.
  • 71
    • 67749109671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., id. at 363 n.* (White, J., concurring) (When one man speaks to another he takes all the risks ordinarily inherent in so doing, including the risk that the man to whom he speaks will make public what he has heard. The Fourth Amendment does not protect against unreliable (or law-abiding) associates. (citing Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293, 303 (1966))).
    • See, e.g., id. at 363 n.* (White, J., concurring) ("When one man speaks to another he takes all the risks ordinarily inherent in so doing, including the risk that the man to whom he speaks will make public what he has heard. The Fourth Amendment does not protect against unreliable (or law-abiding) associates." (citing Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293, 303 (1966))).
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    • See id
    • See id.
  • 73
    • 67749128925 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) (dialed telephone numbers);
    • See, e.g., Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) (dialed telephone numbers);
  • 74
    • 67749115838 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976) (bank records);
    • United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976) (bank records);
  • 75
    • 67749101647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Couch v. United States, 409 U.S. 322 (1973) (business and tax records);
    • Couch v. United States, 409 U.S. 322 (1973) (business and tax records);
  • 76
    • 59349086361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Orin S. Kerr, The Case for the Third-Party Doctrine, 107 MICH. L. REV. 561, 563 (2009) [hereinafter Kerr, Third-Party Doctrine] (explaining that the third-party doctrine precludes an individual from claiming Fourth Amendment protection for information that was voluntarily revealed).
    • see also Orin S. Kerr, The Case for the Third-Party Doctrine, 107 MICH. L. REV. 561, 563 (2009) [hereinafter Kerr, Third-Party Doctrine] (explaining that the "third-party doctrine" precludes an individual from claiming Fourth Amendment protection for information that was voluntarily revealed).
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    • See, e.g, sources cited supra note 65
    • See, e.g., sources cited supra note 65.
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    • 67749136997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Couch, 409 U.S. at 335.
    • See, e.g., Couch, 409 U.S. at 335.
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    • 67749086139 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Miller, 425 U.S. at 440-41 (citing Cal. Bankers Ass'n v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21, 48-49, 52 (1974)).
    • See Miller, 425 U.S. at 440-41 (citing Cal. Bankers Ass'n v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21, 48-49, 52 (1974)).
  • 80
    • 67749143465 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith, 442 U.S. at 745-46.
    • Smith, 442 U.S. at 745-46.
  • 81
    • 67749121881 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 741 (quoting United States v. N.Y. Tel. Co., 434 U.S. 159, 167 (1977)) (noting that a pen register does not hear sound, but merely discloses what numbers have been dialed).
    • Id. at 741 (quoting United States v. N.Y. Tel. Co., 434 U.S. 159, 167 (1977)) (noting that a pen register does not hear sound, but merely discloses what numbers have been dialed).
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    • 67749094617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 742
    • Id. at 742.
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    • 67749121882 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 743-44 (citing Miller, 425 U.S. at 442-44).
    • Id. at 743-44 (citing Miller, 425 U.S. at 442-44).
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    • 67749101642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Third-Party Doctrine, supra note 65, at 588. Under the consent-based formulation, reasonable expectations of privacy are irrelevant when applying the third-party doctrine
    • See
    • See Kerr, Third-Party Doctrine, supra note 65, at 588. Under the consent-based formulation, reasonable expectations of privacy are irrelevant when applying the third-party doctrine. Id..
    • Id
    • Kerr1
  • 85
    • 67749086136 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, sources cited supra note 65
    • See, e.g., sources cited supra note 65.
  • 86
    • 67749139340 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Spanbauer, supra note 1
    • See, e.g., Spanbauer, supra note 1.
  • 87
    • 67749146842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., id..
    • See, e.g., id..
  • 88
    • 67749109673 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Randal C. Picker, Competition and Privacy in Web 2.0 and the Cloud, 103 NW. U. L. REV. 1, 2 (2008). See generally O'Reilly, supra note 2 (explaining what the term Web 2.0 encompasses).
    • See, e.g., Randal C. Picker, Competition and Privacy in Web 2.0 and the Cloud, 103 NW. U. L. REV. 1, 2 (2008). See generally O'Reilly, supra note 2 (explaining what the term "Web 2.0" encompasses).
  • 89
    • 67749085778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Picker, supra note 77, at 2-3
    • See Picker, supra note 77, at 2-3.
  • 90
    • 67749083981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Gruman & Knorr, supra note 3
    • See, e.g., Gruman & Knorr, supra note 3.
  • 91
    • 84869565609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, ENTERPRISE STORAGE F, Dec. 10
    • See Marty Foltyn, The Cloud, Offers Promise for Storage Users, ENTERPRISE STORAGE F., Dec. 10, 2008, http://www. enterprisestorageforum.com/ ipstorage/features/article.php/3790381.
    • (2008) The Cloud, Offers Promise for Storage Users
    • Foltyn, M.1
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    • 67749115841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. Microsoft recently announced its own cloud platform called Azure. Benjamin J. Romano, New Computing Strategy Sends Microsoft to Clouds, SEATTLE TIMES, Oct. 28, 2008, at A10.
    • See id. Microsoft recently announced its own cloud platform called Azure. Benjamin J. Romano, New Computing Strategy Sends Microsoft to Clouds, SEATTLE TIMES, Oct. 28, 2008, at A10.
  • 93
    • 67749138808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Google Docs Tour, Share and Collaborate in Real Time, http://www.google.com/google-d-s/tour2.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (describing the collaborative capabilities of Google Docs).
    • See, e.g., Google Docs Tour, Share and Collaborate in Real Time, http://www.google.com/google-d-s/tour2.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (describing the collaborative capabilities of Google Docs).
  • 94
    • 67749146845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Foltyn, supra note 80
    • See Foltyn, supra note 80.
  • 95
    • 67749094619 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Romano, supra note 81
    • See Romano, supra note 81.
  • 97
    • 67749135136 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • David Smith, Google Plans to Make PCs History, GUARDIAN, Jan. 25, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/jan/25/google-drive-gdrive- internet. Dave Armstrong, the head of product and marketing for Google Enterprise, is quoted as saying, There's a clear direction . . . away from people thinking, 'This is my PC, this is my hard drive,' to 'This is how I interact with information, this is how I interact with the web.'. Id..
    • David Smith, Google Plans to Make PCs History, GUARDIAN, Jan. 25, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/jan/25/google-drive-gdrive- internet. Dave Armstrong, the head of product and marketing for Google Enterprise, is quoted as saying, "There's a clear direction . . . away from people thinking, 'This is my PC, this is my hard drive,' to 'This is how I interact with information, this is how I interact with the web."'. Id..
  • 98
    • 79952374527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cloud Computing Is a Trap, Warns GNU Founder Richard Stallman
    • See, e.g, Sept. 29
    • See, e.g., Bobbie Johnson, Cloud Computing Is a Trap, Warns GNU Founder Richard Stallman, GUARDIAN, Sept. 29, 2008, http://www .guardian.co.uk/technology/2008/sep/29/cloud.computing.richard.stallman.
    • (2008) GUARDIAN
    • Johnson, B.1
  • 99
    • 67749119540 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 81. Microsoft, for example, has spent billions of dollars to implement its new Azure platform
    • See
    • See Romano, supra note 81. Microsoft, for example, has spent billions of dollars to implement its new Azure platform. Id..
    • Id
    • Romano1
  • 100
    • 67749111259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Google Video Help, What Are Unlisted Videos?, http://video .google.com/support/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=48320 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) [hereinafter Google Video Privacy] (explaining the Google Video unlisted option);
    • E.g., Google Video Help, What Are "Unlisted" Videos?, http://video .google.com/support/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=48320 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) [hereinafter Google Video Privacy] (explaining the Google Video "unlisted" option);
  • 101
    • 67749119541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Jonathan Strickland, How Cloud Storage Works, HOWSTUFFWORKS, http://communication.howstuffworks.com/cloud-storage3 .htm Qast visited Apr. 17, 2009.
    • see also Jonathan Strickland, How Cloud Storage Works, HOWSTUFFWORKS, http://communication.howstuffworks.com/cloud-storage3 .htm Qast visited Apr. 17, 2009).
  • 103
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    • See, e.g., Google Video Privacy, supra note 89; Lenssen, supra note 90 (explaining that an unlisted address, while not password protected, contains meta data allowing it to he shared with friends but preventing it from being listed in search results); Picasa & Picasa Web Albums Help, Album Privacy: Authorization Key, http://picasa.google.com/support/ bin/answer.py ?hl=en&answer=48446 [hereinafter Picasa Album Privacy] (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (explaining that unlisted photo albums contain an authorization key in the web address consisting of a letter and number combination, making it very difficult to guess).
    • See, e.g., Google Video Privacy, supra note 89; Lenssen, supra note 90 (explaining that an "unlisted" address, while not password protected, contains meta data allowing it to he shared with friends but preventing it from being listed in search results); Picasa & Picasa Web Albums Help, Album Privacy: Authorization Key, http://picasa.google.com/support/ bin/answer.py ?hl=en&answer=48446 [hereinafter Picasa Album Privacy] (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (explaining that unlisted photo albums contain an authorization key in the web address consisting of a letter and number combination, making it "very difficult to guess").
  • 104
    • 84869573760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COMPUTERWEEKLY, Dec. 10
    • Warwick Ashford, Cloud Computing Presents a Top Security Challenge, COMPUTERWEEKLY, Dec. 10, 2008, http://www.computerweekly.com/ Articles/2008/12/10/233839/cloud-computing-presents-a-top-security-challenge. htm.
    • (2008) Cloud Computing Presents a Top Security Challenge
    • Ashford, W.1
  • 105
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    • Foltyn, supra note 80
    • Foltyn, supra note 80.
  • 106
    • 67749099188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., SIMON SINGH, THE CODE BOOK: THE SCIENCE OF SECRECY FROM ANCIENT EGYPT TO QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY 6, 11 (1999).
    • See, e.g., SIMON SINGH, THE CODE BOOK: THE SCIENCE OF SECRECY FROM ANCIENT EGYPT TO QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY 6, 11 (1999).
  • 107
    • 67749083980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Dan Froomkin & Amy Branson, Deciphering Encryption, WASH. POST, May 8, 1998, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/ politics/special/ encryption/encryption.htm. This has led to law enforcement complaints that encryption is a roadblock to detecting terrorist plots or investigating criminals. Id..
    • E.g., Dan Froomkin & Amy Branson, Deciphering Encryption, WASH. POST, May 8, 1998, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/ politics/special/ encryption/encryption.htm. This has led to law enforcement complaints that encryption is a roadblock to detecting terrorist plots or investigating criminals. Id..
  • 108
    • 67749119538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, recently unveiled quantum encryption offers security using the inherently unbreakable laws of quantum theory. Roland Pease, 'Unbreakable' Encryption Unveiled, BBC NEWS, Oct. 9, 2008, http://news.bbc .co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7661311.stm.
    • For example, recently unveiled quantum encryption offers security using the "inherently unbreakable" laws of quantum theory. Roland Pease, 'Unbreakable' Encryption Unveiled, BBC NEWS, Oct. 9, 2008, http://news.bbc .co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7661311.stm.
  • 109
    • 84869571390 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, CNET NEWS, Apr. 1
    • See, e.g., Paul Festa, Google to Offer Gigabyte of Free E-mail, CNET NEWS, Apr. 1, 2004, http://news.cnet.com/Google-to-offer- gigabyte-of-free-email/2100-1032-3-5182805.html.
    • (2004) Google to Offer Gigabyte of Free E-mail
    • Festa, P.1
  • 110
    • 67749109672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892
    • Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905-06 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) 905-06 (9th Cir
    • Quon, V.1
  • 111
    • 67749139338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id. at 905
    • id. at 905.
  • 112
    • 67749132316 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 910
    • Id. at 910.
  • 113
    • 67749092780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117,118 (D. Mass. 2007).
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117,118 (D. Mass. 2007).
  • 114
    • 67749094620 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 122 n. 16.
    • Id. at 122 n. 16.
  • 115
    • 67749146843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 122-23
    • Id. at 122-23.
  • 116
    • 67749083982 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Quon, 529 F.3d at 910.
    • See Quon, 529 F.3d at 910.
  • 117
    • 67749101644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In a footnote, the court assumed without discussion that a website or computer file is analogous to a physical container. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122 n. 16
    • In a footnote, the court assumed without discussion that a website or computer file is analogous to a physical container. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122 n. 16.
  • 118
    • 67749132315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (finding no meaningful difference between e-mails, text messages, and letters);
    • See, e.g., Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (finding "no meaningful difference" between e-mails, text messages, and letters);
  • 119
    • 10844255649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Deirdre K. Mulligan, Reasonable Expectations in Electronic Communications: A Critical Perspective on the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 72 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 1557, 1586 (2004) (E-mail and other electronic files are modern-day papers. (citing ACLU v. Reno, 929 F. Supp. 824, 834 (E.D. Pa. 1996))).
    • Deirdre K. Mulligan, Reasonable Expectations in Electronic Communications: A Critical Perspective on the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 72 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 1557, 1586 (2004) ("E-mail and other electronic files are modern-day papers." (citing ACLU v. Reno, 929 F. Supp. 824, 834 (E.D. Pa. 1996))).
  • 120
    • 67749133262 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Quon, 529 F.3d at 910.
    • See, e.g., Quon, 529 F.3d at 910.
  • 121
    • 67749115840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122.
    • See, e.g., D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122.
  • 122
    • 67749138810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
  • 123
    • 67749107695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Welcome to Google Calendar, http://www.google.com/ googlecalendar/overview.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); Windows Live Calendar Beta, http://www.windowslive-hotmail.com/calendar/default.aspx? page=default&locale=en-US (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
    • E.g., Welcome to Google Calendar, http://www.google.com/ googlecalendar/overview.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); Windows Live Calendar Beta, http://www.windowslive-hotmail.com/calendar/default.aspx? page=default&locale=en-US (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
  • 124
    • 67749138809 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., About Flickr, http://www.flickr.com/about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); Getting Started with Picasa, http://picasa.google.com/support/bin/ answer.py?answer=93183 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
    • E.g., About Flickr, http://www.flickr.com/about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); Getting Started with Picasa, http://picasa.google.com/support/bin/ answer.py?answer=93183 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
  • 125
    • 67749101645 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Yahoo! Address Book, http://address.yahoo.com (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
    • E.g., Yahoo! Address Book, http://address.yahoo.com (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
  • 126
    • 84868995179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gmail, 10 Reasons to Use Gmail, last visited Apr. 17
    • See, e.g., Gmail, 10 Reasons to Use Gmail, http://mail.google.com/ mail/ help/about.html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
    • (2009) See, e.g
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    • 67749101646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Blogger: About Us, The Story of Blogger, http://www.blogger.com/ about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); WordPress.Org, About WordPress, http:// wordpress.org/about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
    • E.g., Blogger: About Us, The Story of Blogger, http://www.blogger.com/ about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009); WordPress.Org, About WordPress, http:// wordpress.org/about (last visited Apr. 17, 2009).
  • 128
    • 67749146844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985).
    • New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985).
  • 129
    • 67749115839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004) (citing T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 339).
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 353 (8th Cir. 2004) (citing T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 339).
  • 130
    • 67749143463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515,1519 (11th Cir. 1983).
    • United States v. Freire, 710 F.2d 1515,1519 (11th Cir. 1983).
  • 131
    • 67749107696 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 353 (1967) (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 353 (1967) (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
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    • 67749092783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
    • E.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
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    • 67749132317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391 (4th Cir. 2001); Crist, 2008 WL 4682806.
    • See, e.g., Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391 (4th Cir. 2001); Crist, 2008 WL 4682806.
  • 134
    • 67749135137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d at 353.
    • Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d at 353.
  • 135
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    • Freire, 710 F.2d at 1519.
    • Freire, 710 F.2d at 1519.
  • 136
    • 84869554213 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 10
    • E.g., Anahad O'Connor, From Public and Blogosphere, Shock, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 10, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/10/nyregion/ 10cnd-comments.html?-r=l.
    • (2008) From Public and Blogosphere, Shock
    • O'Connor, A.1
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    • United States v. Gines-Perez, 214 F. Supp. 2d 205, 225 (D.P.R. 2002), vacated on other grounds, 90 Fed. App'x 3 (1st Cir. 2004) (first emphasis added).
    • United States v. Gines-Perez, 214 F. Supp. 2d 205, 225 (D.P.R. 2002), vacated on other grounds, 90 Fed. App'x 3 (1st Cir. 2004) (first emphasis added).
  • 138
    • 67749097387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Blogger Help, How Do I Control Who Can View My Blog?, http://help.blogger.com/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=42673 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (explaining that a blog hosted by Google's Blogger is completely public by default, but can be made private by restricting access to only those users with accounts approved by the blog creator); WordPress.com, Private Blogs, http://en.blog.wordpress.com/2006/08/04/private-blogs (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (announcing new options for WordPress bloggers to make a private blog unlisted and limit access to only those with permission, in order to protect more sensitive or private topics).
    • See, e.g., Blogger Help, How Do I Control Who Can View My Blog?, http://help.blogger.com/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=42673 (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (explaining that a blog hosted by Google's Blogger is "completely public" by default, but can be made private by restricting access to only those users with accounts approved by the blog creator); WordPress.com, Private Blogs, http://en.blog.wordpress.com/2006/08/04/private-blogs (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) (announcing new options for WordPress bloggers to make a private blog unlisted and limit access to only those with permission, in order to protect "more sensitive or private topics").
  • 139
    • 67749094616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Press Release, Scarborough Research, The Need for Internet Speed: Broadband Penetration Increased More than 300% Since 2002 (Apr. 15, 2008), [hereinafter Scarborough Research, Broadband Penetration Increased], available at http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUSl83986+15- Apr-2008+PRN20080415 (reporting an increase in adults with household broadband connections from twelve percent in 2002 to forty-nine percent in 2008, allowing users to upload, download, post and interact with content in a Web 2.0 environment).
    • See Press Release, Scarborough Research, The Need for Internet Speed: Broadband Penetration Increased More than 300% Since 2002 (Apr. 15, 2008), [hereinafter Scarborough Research, Broadband Penetration Increased], available at http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUSl83986+15- Apr-2008+PRN20080415 (reporting an increase in adults with household broadband connections from twelve percent in 2002 to forty-nine percent in 2008, allowing users to "upload, download, post and interact with content in a Web 2.0 environment").
  • 140
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    • This Year, Web Grew More Mobile than Ev-er⋯
    • Two thousand eight] was a year that saw the Web grow more critical as a mobile platform, See, e.g, Dec. 25, at
    • See, e.g., Eric Benderoff, This Year, Web Grew More Mobile than Ev-er⋯, CHI. TRIB., Dec. 25, 2008, at 39 ("[Two thousand eight] was a year that saw the Web grow more critical as a mobile platform.").
    • (2008) CHI. TRIB , pp. 39
    • Benderoff, E.1
  • 141
    • 67749090688 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Evidence suggests that users value the convenience and anywhere-access attributes of cloud computing even more than the ability to share files with others. Horrigan, Cloud Survey, supra note 9, at 5
    • Evidence suggests that users value the convenience and anywhere-access attributes of cloud computing even more than the ability to share files with others. Horrigan, Cloud Survey, supra note 9, at 5.
  • 142
    • 67749094618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Romano, supra note 81
    • See, e.g., Romano, supra note 81.
  • 143
    • 67749109672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892
    • Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) 905 (9th Cir
    • Quon, V.1
  • 144
    • 67749097388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 905-06. Service providers can archive text-message content on their own servers in much the same way that e-mails are stored in the cloud. See id. at 895-96. But see Marcus R. Jones & Hugh H. Makes, Traps in Electronic Communications, 8 J. BUS. & SEC. L. 157, 162 (2008) (explaining that in most cases text messages are stored on the user's phone).
    • Id. at 905-06. Service providers can archive text-message content on their own servers in much the same way that e-mails are stored in the cloud. See id. at 895-96. But see Marcus R. Jones & Hugh H. Makes, Traps in Electronic Communications, 8 J. BUS. & SEC. L. 157, 162 (2008) (explaining that in most cases text messages are stored on the user's phone).
  • 145
    • 67749092781 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Sixth Circuit actually made a similar ruling in 2007, but that opinion was later vacated. The court held that the issue of whether the government should be enjoined from conducting future ex parte searches was not ripe for adjudication. Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008).
    • The Sixth Circuit actually made a similar ruling in 2007, but that opinion was later vacated. The court held that the issue of whether the government should be enjoined from conducting future ex parte searches was not ripe for adjudication. Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008).
  • 147
    • 67749085779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Romano, supra note 81
    • See, e.g., Romano, supra note 81.
  • 148
    • 67749146841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Horrigan, Cloud Survey, supra note 9, at 6-7 (finding that sixty-four percent of cloud-computing users in the United States would be either somewhat or very concerned if the service provider shared their files with law enforcement).
    • See, e.g., Horrigan, Cloud Survey, supra note 9, at 6-7 (finding that sixty-four percent of cloud-computing users in the United States would be either "somewhat" or "very" concerned if the service provider shared their files with law enforcement).
  • 149
    • 38949083590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, U.S. 334
    • See, e.g., Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000).
    • (2000) United States , vol.529 , pp. 338-339
    • Bond, V.1
  • 150
    • 67749139337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 (1st Cir. 2005).
    • See, e.g., United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 (1st Cir. 2005).
  • 151
    • 67749117685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Alex Wright, Exploring a 'Deep Web' That Google Can't Grasp, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 23, 2009, at Bl (describing material stored online that is invisible to common search engine methods); UC Berkeley Library, Invisible or Deep Web: What It Is, Why It Exists, How to Find It, and Its Inherent Ambiguity, http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/ InvisibleWeb .html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) [hereinafter Invisible Web] (The 'invisible web' is what you cannot find using [search engines and subject directories].).
    • See generally Alex Wright, Exploring a 'Deep Web' That Google Can't Grasp, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 23, 2009, at Bl (describing material stored online that is invisible to common search engine methods); UC Berkeley Library, Invisible or Deep Web: What It Is, Why It Exists, How to Find It, and Its Inherent Ambiguity, http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/ InvisibleWeb .html (last visited Apr. 17, 2009) [hereinafter Invisible Web] ("The 'invisible web' is what you cannot find using [search engines and subject directories].").
  • 152
    • 67749117686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008). But see Posting of Orin Kerr, supra note 55 (arguing that using a hash to compare files to known images of child pornography is analogous to a constitutionally permissible drug-sniffing dog).
    • United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008). But see Posting of Orin Kerr, supra note 55 (arguing that using a hash to compare files to known images of child pornography is analogous to a constitutionally permissible drug-sniffing dog).
  • 153
    • 67749130504 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crist, 2008 WL 4682806, at *10.
    • Crist, 2008 WL 4682806, at *10.
  • 154
    • 67749107840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 398, 403 (4th Cir. 2001) (concluding that a live-in girlfriend could not consent to a police search of her boyfriend's computer files when the police were told that the computer was shared but that each had password-protected files inaccessible to the other);
    • See, e.g., Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 398, 403 (4th Cir. 2001) (concluding that a live-in girlfriend could not consent to a police search of her boyfriend's computer files when the police were told that the computer was shared but that each had password-protected files inaccessible to the other);
  • 155
    • 67749119537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also United States v. Andrus, 483 F.3d 711, 719-22 (10th Cir. 2007) (concluding that a father had apparent authority to consent to a police search of his adult son's password-protected computer, which the court categorized as a locked container). The court in Andrus, however, refused to presuppose that password protection is so common that a reasonable police officer should know that a computer is likely to be so protected. Id. at 721.
    • see also United States v. Andrus, 483 F.3d 711, 719-22 (10th Cir. 2007) (concluding that a father had apparent authority to consent to a police search of his adult son's password-protected computer, which the court categorized as a locked container). The court in Andrus, however, refused to presuppose that password protection is so common that a reasonable police officer should know that a computer is likely to be so protected. Id. at 721.
  • 156
    • 67749117687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Trulock, 275 F.3d at 398, 403.
    • See, e.g., Trulock, 275 F.3d at 398, 403.
  • 157
    • 67749086135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The virtual-container analogy has been criticized in the offline context as a fluctuating concept, and one in which law enforcement officers argue that they must be able to open any file to know what it is. G. Robert McLain, Jr., Note, United States v. Hill: A New Rule, But No Clarity for the Rules Governing Computer Searches and Seizures, 14 GEO. MASON L. REV. 1071, 1098, 1100 (2007) (emphasis added).
    • The virtual-container analogy has been criticized in the offline context as a "fluctuating" concept, and one in which law enforcement officers argue that "they must be able to open any file to know what it is." G. Robert McLain, Jr., Note, United States v. Hill: A New Rule, But No Clarity for the Rules Governing Computer Searches and Seizures, 14 GEO. MASON L. REV. 1071, 1098, 1100 (2007) (emphasis added).
  • 158
    • 67749097386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 n.16 (D. Mass. 2007).
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 n.16 (D. Mass. 2007).
  • 159
    • 67749114035 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 160
    • 84869591653 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 121 (citing 1 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE: A TREATISE ON THE FOURTH AMENDMENT § 2.6(f), at 721 (4th ed. 2004)).
    • Id. at 121 (citing 1 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE: A TREATISE ON THE FOURTH AMENDMENT § 2.6(f), at 721 (4th ed. 2004)).
  • 161
    • 84869591656 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • LAFAVE, supra note 146, § 2.6(f), at 721 (quoting Randolph S. Sergent, Note, A Fourth Amendment Model for Computer Networks and Data Privacy, 81 VA. L. REV. 1181, 1200 (1995)). But see Orin S. Kerr, The Fourth Amendment in Cyberspace: Can Encryption Create a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy?, 33 CONN. L. REV. 503, 532 (2001) [hereinafter Kerr, Cyberspace Encryption] (arguing that historically, decrypting encrypted communications has been held not to violate a reasonable expectation of privacy, and that conclusion does not change in the Internet context).
    • LAFAVE, supra note 146, § 2.6(f), at 721 (quoting Randolph S. Sergent, Note, A Fourth Amendment Model for Computer Networks and Data Privacy, 81 VA. L. REV. 1181, 1200 (1995)). But see Orin S. Kerr, The Fourth Amendment in Cyberspace: Can Encryption Create a "Reasonable Expectation of Privacy?", 33 CONN. L. REV. 503, 532 (2001) [hereinafter Kerr, Cyberspace Encryption] (arguing that historically, decrypting encrypted communications has been held not to violate a reasonable expectation of privacy, and that conclusion does not change in the Internet context).
  • 162
    • 38949083590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, U.S. 334
    • See Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000);
    • (2000) United States , vol.529 , pp. 338-339
    • Bond, V.1
  • 163
    • 67749123843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also United States v. Bosby, 675 F.2d 1174, 1180 (11th Cir. 1982) (Absent exigent circumstances, closed containers such as a briefcase or pieces of personal luggage even if unlocked cannot be searched absent a warrant.).
    • see also United States v. Bosby, 675 F.2d 1174, 1180 (11th Cir. 1982) ("Absent exigent circumstances, closed containers such as a briefcase or pieces of personal luggage even if unlocked cannot be searched absent a warrant.").
  • 165
    • 67749127122 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 166
    • 67749103385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 508.
    • See id. at 508.
  • 167
    • 67749133259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 518
    • Id. at 518.
  • 168
    • 67749143461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Stephen E. Henderson, Nothing New Under the Sun? A Technologically Rational Doctrine of Fourth Amendment Search, 56 MERCER L. REV. 507, 532 n.135 (2005) (arguing that Kerr's assertions have grounding in supportive dicta but are nonetheless inapposite or unpersuasive);
    • See, e.g., Stephen E. Henderson, Nothing New Under the Sun? A Technologically Rational Doctrine of Fourth Amendment Search, 56 MERCER L. REV. 507, 532 n.135 (2005) (arguing that Kerr's assertions have grounding in "supportive dicta" but are nonetheless "inapposite or unpersuasive");
  • 169
    • 67749113053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sean J. Edgett, Note, Double-Clicking on Fourth Amendment Protection: Encryption Creates a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy, 30 PEPP. L. REV. 339, 355-61 (2003).
    • Sean J. Edgett, Note, Double-Clicking on Fourth Amendment Protection: Encryption Creates a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy, 30 PEPP. L. REV. 339, 355-61 (2003).
  • 171
    • 84869566834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Edgett, supra note 153, at 365 (Encryption makes a document invisible to outsiders ⋯. Instead of using physical walls, it creates a digital wall⋯.).
    • See Edgett, supra note 153, at 365 ("Encryption makes a document invisible to outsiders ⋯. Instead of using physical walls, it creates a digital wall⋯.").
  • 172
    • 67749115837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, Picasa Album Privacy, supra note 91
    • See, e.g., Picasa Album Privacy, supra note 91.
  • 173
    • 67749086134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Google Video Privacy, supra note 89
    • Google Video Privacy, supra note 89.
  • 174
    • 67749097385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • When Google initially provided an unlisted option for Picasa photo albums, the URL did not contain an authentication key, but instead simply included the name of the album in the address, making it relatively easy to guess. See Google Blogoscoped, Picasa Fixes Privacy Vulnerability, http:// blogoscoped.com/archive/2006-10-07-n48.html (Oct. 7, 2006) (reporting that Google added an authentication key to the web addresses of unlisted Picasa albums after facing criticism).
    • When Google initially provided an "unlisted" option for Picasa photo albums, the URL did not contain an authentication key, but instead simply included the name of the album in the address, making it relatively easy to guess. See Google Blogoscoped, Picasa Fixes Privacy Vulnerability, http:// blogoscoped.com/archive/2006-10-07-n48.html (Oct. 7, 2006) (reporting that Google added an authentication key to the web addresses of unlisted Picasa albums after facing criticism).
  • 175
    • 67749135131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Wright, supra note 138; Invisible Web, supra note 138. This could also bring into question websites with noindex meta tags, which are special tags that can be embedded within a web page's HTML code telling search engine robots not to index the page contents. HAROLD DAVIS, GOOGLE ADVERTISING TOOLS 61-62 (2006).
    • See Wright, supra note 138; Invisible Web, supra note 138. This could also bring into question websites with "noindex" meta tags, which are special tags that can be embedded within a web page's HTML code telling search engine robots not to index the page contents. HAROLD DAVIS, GOOGLE ADVERTISING TOOLS 61-62 (2006).
  • 176
    • 67749086133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 360-61 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
  • 177
    • 67749087922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 363 n.* (White, J., concurring).
    • Id. at 363 n.* (White, J., concurring).
  • 178
    • 38849111293 scopus 로고
    • U.S. 735
    • Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 744 (1979).
    • (1979) Maryland , vol.442 , pp. 744
    • Smith, V.1
  • 179
    • 67749101641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435, 442-43 (1976).
    • United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435, 442-43 (1976).
  • 180
    • 67749135133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Schuyler B. Sorosky, Note, United States v. Forrester: An Unwarranted Narrowing of the Fourth Amendment, 41 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 1121, 1138-39 (2008).
    • See, e.g., Schuyler B. Sorosky, Note, United States v. Forrester: An Unwarranted Narrowing of the Fourth Amendment, 41 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 1121, 1138-39 (2008).
  • 181
    • 67749087921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 123 (D. Mass. 2007). Orin Kerr has pointed out, however, that the court was wrong to assume that the password was voluntarily shared with the anonymous police informant; the password could have been obtained without the website owner's permission or knowledge, or the anonymous informant may not have been granted full access rights. Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http://volokh .com/posts/1185284749.shtml (July 24, 2007, 10:20).
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 123 (D. Mass. 2007). Orin Kerr has pointed out, however, that the court was wrong to assume that the password was voluntarily shared with the anonymous police informant; the password could have been obtained without the website owner's permission or knowledge, or the anonymous informant may not have been granted full access rights. Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http://volokh .com/posts/1185284749.shtml (July 24, 2007, 10:20).
  • 182
    • 67749109672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892
    • Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 906 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) 906 (9th Cir
    • Quon, V.1
  • 183
    • 67749097383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 905-06
    • Id. at 905-06.
  • 184
    • 84869566837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455, 470 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008). [I]f the government in this case had received the content of Warshak's e-mails by subpoenaing the person with whom Warshak was e-mailing, a Fourth Amendment challenge brought by Warshak would fail, because he would not have maintained a reasonable expectation of privacy vis-à-vis his e-mailing partners. Id. at 471.
    • Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455, 470 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008). "[I]f the government in this case had received the content of Warshak's e-mails by subpoenaing the person with whom Warshak was e-mailing, a Fourth Amendment challenge brought by Warshak would fail, because he would not have maintained a reasonable expectation of privacy vis-à-vis his e-mailing partners." Id. at 471.
  • 185
    • 67749136995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (quoting United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500, 510 (9th Cir. 2008) (omission in original)).
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (quoting United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500, 510 (9th Cir. 2008) (omission in original)).
  • 186
    • 67749094615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 742 (1979); Forrester, 512 F.3d at 505.
    • Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 742 (1979); Forrester, 512 F.3d at 505.
  • 187
    • 84869566831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith, 442 U.S. at 741 ('[Pen registers] do not hear sound. They disclose only the telephone numbers that have been dialed ⋯.' (quoting United States v. N.Y. Tel. Co., 434 U.S. 159,167 (1977))).
    • Smith, 442 U.S. at 741 ('"[Pen registers] do not hear sound. They disclose only the telephone numbers that have been dialed ⋯."' (quoting United States v. N.Y. Tel. Co., 434 U.S. 159,167 (1977))).
  • 188
    • 67749097384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 ([I]ndividuals do not enjoy a reasonable expectation of privacy in what they write on the outside of an envelope.).
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 ("[I]ndividuals do not enjoy a reasonable expectation of privacy in what they write on the outside of an envelope.").
  • 189
    • 67749128924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http://volokh.com/ posts/1185384966.shtml (July 25, 2007, 13:36).
    • Posting of Orin Kerr to The Volokh Conspiracy, http://volokh.com/ posts/1185384966.shtml (July 25, 2007, 13:36).
  • 190
    • 67749107692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dempsey, supra note 35, at 556 (The rule that transactional information about the communications is unprotected had more limited implications when transactional data didn't reveal very much and was hard to analyze.).
    • Dempsey, supra note 35, at 556 ("The rule that transactional information about the communications is unprotected had more limited implications when transactional data didn't reveal very much and was hard to analyze.").
  • 191
    • 67749090687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Forrester also held that the IP addresses of websites a person has visited and the amount of data transmitted to or from an account are transactional and subject to the third-party doctrine. 512 F.3d at 510.
    • Forrester also held that the IP addresses of websites a person has visited and the amount of data transmitted to or from an account are transactional and subject to the third-party doctrine. 512 F.3d at 510.
  • 192
    • 42149179454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1 THE INTERNET ENCYCLOPEDIA 218-19 Hossein ed, explaining the process undertaken when a webpage is requested
    • See generally 1 THE INTERNET ENCYCLOPEDIA 218-19 (Hossein Bidgoli ed., 2004) (explaining the process undertaken when a webpage is requested).
    • (2004) See generally
  • 194
    • 67749107693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g., United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146, 150 (10th Cir. 1986) (holding that luggage left in a motel room is still protected by the Fourth Amendment even if the checkout time has passed and the motel may legally enter by force and evict the hold-over guest).
    • See e.g., United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146, 150 (10th Cir. 1986) (holding that luggage left in a motel room is still protected by the Fourth Amendment even if the checkout time has passed and the motel may legally enter by force and evict the hold-over guest).
  • 195
    • 67749109668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008) (citing United States v. Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d 1142, 1146-47 (9th Cir. 2007));
    • Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008) (citing United States v. Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d 1142, 1146-47 (9th Cir. 2007));
  • 196
    • 67749113985 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455, 470 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated, 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008) (arguing that if the third-party doctrine applied to every intermediary that has minimal access to content, then letters would never be protected, by virtue of the Postal Service's ability to access them; [and] the contents of shared safe deposit boxes or storage lockers would never be protected, by virtue of the bank or storage company's ability to access them).
    • see also Warshak v. United States, 490 F.3d 455, 470 (6th Cir. 2007), vacated, 532 F.3d 521 (6th Cir. 2008) (arguing that if the third-party doctrine applied to every intermediary that has minimal access to content, then "letters would never be protected, by virtue of the Postal Service's ability to access them; [and] the contents of shared safe deposit boxes or storage lockers would never be protected, by virtue of the bank or storage company's ability to access them").
  • 197
    • 67749099184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 (D. Mass. 2007).
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 (D. Mass. 2007).
  • 199
    • 67749083978 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (citing Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d at 1146-47); Warshak, 490 F.3d at 470.
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (citing Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d at 1146-47); Warshak, 490 F.3d at 470.
  • 200
    • 67749130502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500 (9th Cir. 2008).
  • 201
    • 67749113050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 361 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 361 (1967) (Harlan, J., concurring).
  • 202
    • 67749103386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122 n.16.
    • D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d at 122 n.16.
  • 203
    • 67749083979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
    • Katz, 389 U.S. at 353 (citing Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505, 511 (1961)).
  • 204
    • 67749135135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
    • E.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008).
  • 205
    • 67749136996 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985).
    • See New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 339 (1985).
  • 206
    • 67749109672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892
    • See
    • See Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008).
    • (2008) 905 (9th Cir
    • Quon, V.1
  • 207
    • 67749109670 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id..
  • 208
    • 67749107839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Warshak v. United States, 532 F.3d 521, 534 (6th Cir. 2008) (finding the issue to be unripe).
    • Warshak v. United States, 532 F.3d 521, 534 (6th Cir. 2008) (finding the issue to be unripe).
  • 209
    • 67749133258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Gines-Perez, 214 F. Supp. 2d 205, 225 (D.P.R. 2002).
    • United States v. Gines-Perez, 214 F. Supp. 2d 205, 225 (D.P.R. 2002).
  • 210
    • 38949083590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, U.S. 334
    • See Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000).
    • (2000) United States , vol.529 , pp. 338-339
    • Bond, V.1
  • 211
    • 67749130503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 352 (8th Cir. 2004) (citing New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 334-52 (1985)).
    • Doe ex rel. Doe v. Little Rock Sch. Dist., 380 F.3d 349, 352 (8th Cir. 2004) (citing New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 334-52 (1985)).
  • 212
    • 67749101640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 353
    • Id. at 353.
  • 213
    • 67749107838 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., CLAUDE S. FISCHER, AMERICA CALLING: A SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE TO 1940, at 52 (1992) (In 1929 most residential customers had party lines.).
    • See, e.g., CLAUDE S. FISCHER, AMERICA CALLING: A SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE TO 1940, at 52 (1992) ("In 1929 most residential customers had party lines.").
  • 214
    • 67749111258 scopus 로고
    • U.S. 347
    • Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 358 (1967).
    • (1967) United States , vol.389 , pp. 358
    • Katz, V.1
  • 215
    • 67749127121 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An improperly concealed item does not carry with it a reasonable expectation of privacy no matter how personal the item is. See, e.g, United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 822-23 (1982, T]he Fourth Amendment provides protection to the owner of every container that conceals its contents from plain view, emphasis added, United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 1st Cir. 2005, finding that a labeled container betrayed its contents and therefore the container did not provide a reasonable expectation of privacy
    • An improperly concealed item does not carry with it a reasonable expectation of privacy no matter how personal the item is. See, e.g., United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 822-23 (1982) ("[T]he Fourth Amendment provides protection to the owner of every container that conceals its contents from plain view." (emphasis added)); United States v. Meada, 408 F.3d 14, 23 (1st Cir. 2005) (finding that a labeled container betrayed its contents and therefore the container did not provide a reasonable expectation of privacy).
  • 216
    • 67749123845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 n.16 (D. Mass. 2007).
    • United States v. D'Andrea, 497 F. Supp. 2d 117, 122 n.16 (D. Mass. 2007).
  • 217
    • 67749109669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008); see also Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 403 (4th Cir. 2001).
    • See e.g., United States v. Crist, No. l:07-cr-211, 2008 WL 4682806, at *9 (M.D. Pa. Oct. 22, 2008); see also Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 403 (4th Cir. 2001).
  • 218
    • 67749095525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • McLain, supra note 143, at 1100
    • McLain, supra note 143, at 1100.
  • 219
    • 67749100977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Meada, 408 F.3d at 23.
    • E.g., Meada, 408 F.3d at 23.
  • 221
    • 67749119536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Pease, supra note 96
    • See Pease, supra note 96.
  • 222
    • 84869591648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Neither type of concealment is foolproof, but the fact that a form of protection is penetrable does not preclude the finding of a reasonable expectation of privacy. LAFAVE, supra note 146, § 2.6(f), at 721 (quoting Randolph S. Sergent, Note, A Fourth Amendment Model for Computer Networks and Data Privacy, 81 VA. L. REV. 1181, 1200 (1995)). But see Kerr, Cyberspace Encryption, supra note 147, at 508.
    • Neither type of concealment is foolproof, but the fact that a form of protection is penetrable does not preclude the finding of a reasonable expectation of privacy. LAFAVE, supra note 146, § 2.6(f), at 721 (quoting Randolph S. Sergent, Note, A Fourth Amendment Model
  • 224
    • 84869566827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Edgett, supra note 153, at 356-57 ([Encryption does not work like an international language. There is only one code that can decipher the message ⋯. If individuals are speaking a language unique to the two of them an equivalent to encryption then there should be a reasonable expectation of privacy. (citation omitted)).
    • See Edgett, supra note 153, at 356-57 ("[Encryption does not work like an international language. There is only one code that can decipher the message ⋯. If individuals are speaking a language unique to the two of them an equivalent to encryption then there should be a reasonable expectation of privacy." (citation omitted)).
  • 225
    • 84869562346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • http://www.remotepc.com/ overview.htm (last visited Apr. 17, 2009). The British government is being criticized for a new policy that allows police to conduct "remote searching" of people's computers without a warrant. David Leppard, Police to Step Up Hacking of Home PCs, SUNDAY
    • E.g, Remote Access Service Overview, Jan. 4, at
    • E.g., Remote Access Service Overview, http://www.remotepc.com/ overview.htm (last visited Apr. 17, 2009). The British government is being criticized for a new policy that allows police to conduct "remote searching" of people's computers without a warrant. David Leppard, Police to Step Up Hacking of Home PCs, SUNDAY TIMES (London), Jan. 4, 2009, at 14.
    • (2009) TIMES (London) , pp. 14
  • 226
    • 67749135134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Scarborough Research, Broadband Penetration Increased, supra note 126
    • Scarborough Research, Broadband Penetration Increased, supra note 126.
  • 227
    • 67749113051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Wright, supra note 138; Invisible Web, supra note 138.
    • See Wright, supra note 138; Invisible Web, supra note 138.
  • 228
    • 84869553933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., United States v. Andrus, 483 F.3d 711, 718 (10th Cir. 2007) (Data on an entire computer may be protected by a password, with the password functioning as a lock ⋯.).
    • See, e.g., United States v. Andrus, 483 F.3d 711, 718 (10th Cir. 2007) ("Data on an entire computer may be protected by a password, with the password functioning as a lock ⋯.").
  • 229
    • 67749087920 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Garcia v. Dykstra, 260 F. App'x 887, 897-98 (6th Cir. 2008) (finding that plaintiffs retained a reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of a locked storage unit even though the key was found by police on the ground near the padlock).
    • See, e.g., Garcia v. Dykstra, 260 F. App'x 887, 897-98 (6th Cir. 2008) (finding that plaintiffs retained a reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of a locked storage unit even though the key was found by police on the ground near the padlock).
  • 230
    • 67749119534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Jayni Foley, Note, Are Google Searches Private? An Originalist Interpretation of the Fourth Amendment in Online Communication Cases, 22 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 447, 457 (2007) (As the law currently stands, the broad 'assumption-of-risk' language in Miller and Smith provides the basis for arguments that search engine users lack an expectation of privacy in communications held by search engines and ISPs.); see also United States v. Kennedy, 81 F. Supp. 2d 1103,1110 (D. Kan. 2000).
    • See, e.g., Jayni Foley, Note, Are Google Searches Private? An Originalist Interpretation of the Fourth Amendment in Online Communication Cases, 22 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 447, 457 (2007) ("As the law currently stands, the broad 'assumption-of-risk' language in Miller and Smith provides the basis for arguments that search engine users lack an expectation of privacy in communications held by search engines and ISPs."); see also United States v. Kennedy, 81 F. Supp. 2d 1103,1110 (D. Kan. 2000).
  • 231
    • 67749099183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008) (citing United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500, 510 (9th Cir. 2008)).
    • See Quon v. Arch Wireless Operating Co., 529 F.3d 892, 905 (9th Cir. 2008) (citing United States v. Forrester, 512 F.3d 500, 510 (9th Cir. 2008)).
  • 232
    • 67749135132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 233
    • 67749139336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. (citing United States v. Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d 1142, 1146-47 (9th Cir. 2007)).
    • Id. (citing United States v. Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d 1142, 1146-47 (9th Cir. 2007)).
  • 234
    • 67749107691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Chapman v. United States, 365 U.S. 610, 616-18 (1961); cf. Staler v. California, 376 U.S. 483, 489 (1964) (finding that a hotel proprietor lacks the authority to consent to a search of an occupied hotel room); United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146,150 (10th Cir. 1986) (same).
    • E.g., Chapman v. United States, 365 U.S. 610, 616-18 (1961); cf. Staler v. California, 376 U.S. 483, 489 (1964) (finding that a hotel proprietor lacks the authority to consent to a search of an occupied hotel room); United States v. Owens, 782 F.2d 146,150 (10th Cir. 1986) (same).
  • 235
    • 67749130501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See THE INTERNET ENCYCLOPEDIA, supra note 176, at 218-19
    • See THE INTERNET ENCYCLOPEDIA, supra note 176, at 218-19.
  • 236
    • 67749097382 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MATTHEW STREBE, NETWORK SECURITY JUMPSTART: COMPUTER AND NETWORK SECURITY BASICS 51 (2002) (explaining how password authentication works).
    • See MATTHEW STREBE, NETWORK SECURITY JUMPSTART: COMPUTER AND NETWORK SECURITY BASICS 51 (2002) (explaining how password authentication works).
  • 237
    • 67749146839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Posting of Daniel J. Solove to Concurring Opinions, http://www .concurringopinions.com/archives/2007/07/the-fourth-amen.html (July 9, 2007, 2:11).
    • See Posting of Daniel J. Solove to Concurring Opinions, http://www .concurringopinions.com/archives/2007/07/the-fourth-amen.html (July 9, 2007, 2:11).
  • 238
    • 67749097381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (citing Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d at 1146-47); supra note 179 and accompanying text.
    • Quon, 529 F.3d at 905 (citing Heckenkamp, 482 F.3d at 1146-47); supra note 179 and accompanying text.


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