A portrait of the Ottoman cities

Muslim World

Volumn 92, Issue 3-4, 2002, Pages 255-285

  Acun, Fatma ^a  

^a HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 67650823007     PISSN: 00274909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03744.x     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. The concept of the "Islamic/Muslim city" was constructed by French scholars in the course of their studies on Maghribi cities during 1920s. Despite the debate and revisions since 1960s, it gained credibility in the academic world and provided a model to study traditional Muslim societies. On the application of the concept of Islamic/Muslim city and the related discussions see, Kenneth Brown, "The Uses of a Concept: 'The Muslim City'." Middle Eastern Cities in Comparative Perspective, Franco-British Symposium, London May 10-14, 1984, ed. by Kenneth Brown, Michèle Jole, Peter Suluglett, Sami Zubaida (London: 1986), 73-81;
2. Haneda Masashi, "An Interpretation of the Concept of Islamic City." Islamic Urban Cities, Historical Review and Perspectives, ed. by Masashi Hameda-Toru Miura, Kegan Paul International (London and New York: 1994), 1-9;
3. Masatoshi Kisaichi, "The Magrib." Islamic Urban Cities, Historical Review and Perspectives, ed. by Masashi Hameda-Toru Miura, Kegan Paul International (London and New York: 1994), 33-45;
4. R. B. Serjeant (ed.), İslam Şehri, translated by Elif Topçugil (İstanbul: 1993).
5. The "Turkish Ottoman city" is a concept recently developed to define the characteristics and interrelationships of the cities in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East and North Africa during the Ottoman period. For the suggestion of the use of the Turkish Ottoman city see Kayoko Hayashi, "Turkey." Islamic Urban Cities, Historical Review and Perspectives, ed. by Masashi Hameda-Toru Miura, Kegan Paul International (London and New York: 1994), 185.
6. The famous Turkish art historian Doǧan Kuban uses the term "Anatolian Turkish city" to describe the Anatolian cities of the post Byzantine, i.e., Selcukid and Ottoman periods. Doǧan Kuban "Anadolu-Türk Şehri Tarihi Geliçmesi Sosyal ve Fiziki Özellikleri Üzerinde Bazi Gelismeler." Vakiflar Dergisi, VII (1968), 58-66.
7. Fatma Acun, "Ottoman Administrative Priorities: Two Case Studies of Karahisar-1 Şarki (Şebinkarahisar) and Giresun." Archiwum Ottomanicum, 17(1999), 217.
8. For a critique of the studies on the Ottoman cities in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East and North Africa from the comparative point of view, see "Was There an Ottoman City." The Ottoman City Between East and West, Alepo, İzmir, and İstanbul, eds. Edhem Eldem-Daniel Goffman-Bruce Masters (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge 1999, Introduction), 1-16.
9. Traian Stoianovich, Between East and West, The Balkan Towns and Mediterranean World (New York: 1992), Volume 2, 79-82.
10. On the history of the Balkans see also, Georges Castellan, History of the Balkans, from Mohammed the Conqueror to Stalin, translated by Nicholas Bradley (New York: 1992).
11. th century. Arts and Society in Bulgaria in the Turkish Period (Assen/Maastricht: The Netherlands 1985, 44-45). In the face of the inadequacy of the sources on late Byzantine and early Ottoman periods, the study of these periods was left much in controversy and various contradicting views were expressed and sweeping theories put forward.
12. Feridun Emecen, "Osmanhlarda Yerleşik Hayat, Şehirler ve Köylüler." Osmanli, volume 4, 91.
13. Doǧan Kuban, "Anadolu-Türk Şehri Tarihi Gelişmesi, Sosyal ve Fiziki Özellikleri Üzerinde Bazi Gelişmeler." Vakiflar Dergisi, VII(1968), 59-62.
14. Tuncer Baykara, "Osmanli Devleti Şehirli bir Devlet midir?" Osmanlt, volume 5, 530.
15. On the system of ikta see, Claude Chaen, "Iqta." Encyclopedia of Islam, second edition.
16. Ira M. Lapidus, "Muslim Cities and Islamic Societies." Middle Eastern Cities, ed. by Ira M. Lapidus (Berkeley and Los Angeles: 1969), 51.
17. Andre Raymond, Grandes villes arabes à l'époque ottomane (Paris: 1985), 40-41.
18. Raymond, Grandes villes arabes, 41-2.
19. Many studies on the cities in the Ottoman Balkans have been published. However, they are in languages inaccessible to wider audiences and employ unfamiliar techniques and models. This makes the discussion of the Balkan cities particularly speculative. See, Daniel Chirot (ed.), The Origins of Backwardness in Eastern Europe-Economics and Politics from the Middle Ages Until the Early Twentieth Century (University of California Press: Berkeley-Los Angeles-London 1989);
20. Nikolai Todorov, "The City in the Bulgarian Lands from the Fifteenth Century to the Nineteenth Century." Society, the City and Industry in the Balkans, 15th-19th Centuries, Variorum Collected Studies Series, ed. by Ivan T. Berend (Great Britain-USA: 1989), IV, 15.
21. A unit/fief with an annual value of up to 19.999 akçes was called a timar. A fief with an annual value of between 20.000 and 199.999 akçes was called zeamet while one over 100.000 was called hass.
22. For further information on the timar system see Örner Lütfi Barkan, "Timar", Islam Ansiklopedisi.
23. Beside hūkümet system, the timar system was also applied in some provinces of Eastern Anatolia. On this, see Mehdi ilhan, "Tapu Tahrir Defterlerine Göre Amid Sancaǧinda Timar Daǧilimi." İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarib Enstitüsü Dergisi, 12 (1981-82), s. 85-100;
24. Bayram Kodaman, "Osmanli Devrinde Doǧu Anadolu'nun İdari Durumu." Belgelerle Türk Taribi Dergisi, 25 (1987), s. 31-37; 86;
25. Mehmet Ali Ünal, "XVI. ve XVII. Yüzyillarda Diyarbekir Eyaletine Tabi Sancaklann Statüleri." X. Türk Tarib Kongresi, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, V. cilt, Ankara 1994, s. 2211-2210.
26. A similar case is observed in the provinces of Iraq where bükümet and timar systems were applied alternately. Mehdi İlhan, "Kerkuk and Dahok in the Mid-Sixteenth Century: A Study of the distribution of revenue and Fief Holding According to 1548 and 1560 Cadastral Surveys." Revue Des Etudes Islamiques, LX/2(1992), 529-558.
27. Halil İnalcik, The Ottoman Empire, The Classical Age 1300-1600, translated by Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber (London: 1973), 105.
28. Salih Özbaran, "Some Notes on Salyane System in the Ottoman Empire as Organised in the 16th Century." Osmanli Araştirmalan, 6(1986), 41-42.
29. On the practices and principles of reorganization of the lands newly joined to the Empire see Halil İnalcik, "Ottoman Methods of Conquest." Studia Islamica, 2(1954), 103-129.
30. For further information on the roles of the dervishes see Örner Lütfi Barkan, "Osmanli İmparatorluǧu'nda Bir İskan ve Kolonizasyon Metodu olarak Vakiflar ve Temlikler: I, İstila Devrinin Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri ve Zaviyeler." Vakiflar Dergisi, 2(1974), 279-386.
31. Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanh İmparatorluǧu nda Derbend Teşkilati (İstanbul: 1967), 101-117.
32. The methods employed to repopulate the cities of İstanbul, Selanik and Trabzon are studied in detail by Lowry, "From Lesser Wars to Mightiest War: the Ottoman Conquest and Transformation of Byzantine Urban Centers in the Fifteenth Century." Continuity and Change in Late Byzantine and Early Ottoman Society, ed. by Anthony Bryer and Heath Lowry (Birmingham-Washington: 1986), 325-338;
33. Heath W. Lowry, "Portrait of A City: the Population and Topography of Ottoman Thessaloniki (Selanik) in the Year 1478." Diptcyba, 2(1981), 254-293.
34. Halil İnalcik, "İstanbul: an Islamic City." Essays in Ottoman History, Eren Yayincihk (İstanbul: 1998), 247-271.
35. On the forced transfers of populations in various areas of the Ottoman Empire, see Örner Lütfi Barkan, "Osmanh Ïmparatorluǧ u'nda Bir İskan ve Kolonizasyon Metodu Olarak Sürgünler." İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuast, XI(1949-50), 524-561;
36. XIII (1951-52), 56-79;
37. XV (1953-54), 209-237.
38. Feridun Emecen, "XVI Asrin Başlannda Bir Göç ün Tarihçesi, Gelibolu'da Sirem Sürgünleri." Osmanh Araştrmalart, X(1990), 173.
39. For a detailed information on imarets see Ömer Lütfi Barkan, "Şehirlerin Kuruluçu ve İnkişafi tarihi Bakimindan Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nda İmaret Sitelerinin Kuruluş ve İşleyiş Tarzina ait Araştirmalar. " İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuast, XXIII, 1-2(1962-63), 239-296;
40. Osman Nuri Ergin, Turk Şehirlerinde İmaret Sistemi (İstanbul: 1939);
41. Osman Nuri Ergin, Fatih İmareti Vakfiyesi (İstanbul: 1945);
42. Ziya Kazici, "Osmanh Devletinde İmaret." Osmanh, volume 5, 44-48.
43. Halil İnalcik, "İstanbul: An Islamic City." Essays in Ottoman History (Eren Yayinlaru İstanbul 1998), 258-260.
44. Halil İnalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 147.
45. th Century." The Ottoman Empire in the Reign of Süleyman the Magnificent, I (Ankara: 1985), 184;
46. İlhan Şahin, "Vakif ve Şehirleşme." Türk Dünyast Tarib Dergisi, 1(1987), 23-24;
47. Muhamed M. Arnaud, "The Role of the Wagf in the Emergence and Development of the Cities in the Ottoman Period. A parallel between two examples from tha Balkans and Syria." L Actes du Ve Symposium International d'Etudes Ottomanes sur: Les Villes Arabes, La demographie Historique et la Mer Rouge a l'Epoque Ottomane (Cermodi-Zaghouan Tunisie: 1994), 45-66;
48. On the Anatolian waqfs in general see The Foundations of Turkey, ed. by Zekai Baloǧlu and et. al (İstanbul: 1996).
49. Irene A. Bierman, "The Qttomanisation of Crete." The Ottoman City and its Parts, Urban Structure and Social Order, ed. by Irene A. Bierman-Rifat A. Abou El-Hac-Donald Preziosi (New York: 1991), 53-75.
50. Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanh İmparatorluǧu 'nda Şehircilik ve Ulaşim Üzerine Araştirmalar (Derleyen Salih Özbaran, İzmir: 1984), 140-146.
51. See also inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 146-147.
52. See also Suraiyya Faroghi, Pilgrims and Sultans, The Hajj under the Ottomans 1517-1683 (London-New York: 1990).
53. Suraiyya Faroqhi, "Sixteenth Century Periodic Markets in the Various Anatolian Sancaks: İçel, Hamid, Karahisar-1 Sahib, Aydm and Menteçe." Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient, 22/1(1979), 32-80.
54. Leila Erder-Suraiyya Faroqhi, "Development of Anatolian Urban Network during the Sixteenth Century. " Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient, 23/3(1980), pp. 265-303.
55. See also, Muhiddin Tuş, "Osmanh Şehirlerinin Ticari Potansiyelleri." Osmanh, volume 3, 481-489.
56. On the derbend organization see Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nda Derbend Teşkilati (İstanbul: 1967).
57. Orhonlu, Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nda Şehircilik, 27-66, 70-77, 104-139.
58. A. Z. Hertz, "Muslims, Christians and Jews in the Sixteenth Century Belgrade." The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds, The East European Pattern, ed. by Abraham Ascher-Tibor H. Kun-Ble K. Kirlay (Brooklyn: 1979), 149-150.
59. Rhoads Murphey, "Ma'din." Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition, 973-985.
60. On the mines in Anatolia and their influence on the development of the cities see Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Anatolia-Trade, Crafts and Food Production in an Urban Setting, 1520-1650 (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1984), 171-188.
61. The process of development of Şebinkarahisar into a small size town and the policies followed by the state is treated in the following article, Fatma Acun, "Anadolu Şehirlerinin Gelişmesinde Devletin Rolü: Karahisar Örneǧi", (2001), Belleten, (in print).
62. Halil İnalcik, "The Impact of Annales School on Ottoman Studies." Review, 1-3/4, Winter/Spring (1978), 78.
63. Suraiyya Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Ottoman Anatolia, 288-289, 293-295.
64. Study of bedesten in general and the bedesten of İstanbul in particular is undertaken in the following article by Halil İnalcik, "The Hub of the City: The Bedesten of İstanbul", International Journal of Turkish Studies, 1/1(1979-80), 11-34.
65. An extensive study exists on the role of waqfs in the development of cities. For a critical discussion of these studies see, Hayashi, "Turkey," 211-213.
66. Özer Ergenç, "Osmanh Şehirlerinde Esnaf Örgüderinin Fiziki Yapiya Etkileri." Türkiye'nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi (1071-1920), ed. Osman Okyar-Halil İnalcik (Ankara: 1980), 106-107.
67. Those who make soap, roasted chickpeas, and tanning occupied the same quarter calling its name with their respective occupations: Soap-makers (sabuni), roasted chickpea makers (leblebici), and tanners (debbaǧin). Özer Ergenç, XVI Yüzyilda Ankara ve Konya, Ankara Enstitüsü Vakfi (Ankara: 1995), s. 22.
68. For a discussion of quarters in Ottoman cities and their functions see Özer Ergenç, "Osmanh Şehrinde Mahallenin İçlev ve Nitelikleri Üzerine." Osmanh Araş tirmalart, IV(1984), 69-78.
69. Raymond, Arap Kentleri, 120.
70. The wheat stores in Şam were located outside the city which facilitated the purchase of wheat for pilgrims. Raymond, Arap Kentleri, 176.
71. It was a wide spread phenomenon in the 16th century that many Anatolian villages with a population of 400 taxpayers and a market developed into small size towns. Leila Erder-Suraiyya Faroqhi, "Development of Anatolian Urban Network During the Sixteenth Century." Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient, 23-3(1980), 265-303. Faroqhi devotes her monumental book on the study of Anatolian towns.
72. Ronald Jennings, "Urban Population in Anatolia in the Sixteenth Century: A Study of Kayseri, Karaman, Amasya, Trabzon and Erzurum." International Journal of Middle East Studies, VII(1976), 21-67.
73. On the development of Mardin, see Nejat Göyünç, XVI. Yüzyilda Mardin Sancaǧi (İstanbul: 1969).
74. For the population figures in the 16th century see, Suavi Aydin, et. al (ed.), Mardin - Aşiret, Cemaat, Devlet (Tarih Vakfi Yayinlan. İstanbul, 2000). 131, Table 2.
75. The Muslim population of the city of Diyarbakir was 1.384 households (1.337 ordinary tax paying households and 47 prayers who also constituted households). Non-Muslims were 2.049 households. The population of the city totalled 3.433 households in 1540. Mehdi İlhan, "Onaltinci Asirda Diyarbakir Şehrinin Nüfusu ve Mahallelere Daḡihmi", Ziya Gökalp, 62(1991), 58-60, Table 4.
76. Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Anatolia, 14-15.
77. These figures are taken from the following study: Cem Behar, Osmanh İmpatratorluḡu ve Türkiye'nin Nüfusu 1500-1927, Ankara 1996, 6.
78. On the demography of the Balkans in this period see Nikolai Todorov, "The Demographic Situation in the Balkan Penninsula (late 15th - early 16th century)," Society, the City and Industry in the Balkans, 15th-19th Centuries, Variorum Collected Studies Series, ed. by Ivan T. Berend (Great Britain-USA: 1989), VI, 1-34.
79. Behar, Osmanh İmpatratorluǧu ve Türkiye'nin Nüfusu, 6.
80. Yunus Koç, "Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nun Nüfus Yapisi (1300-1900)." Osmanh, Volume 4, 538.
81. On celali rebellions see, Mustafa Akdaǧ, Celali İsyanlan 1550-1563 (Ankara: 1963);
82. Mustafa Akdaǧ, Türkiye'nin İktisadi ve İctimai Tarihi 1453-1559, Two volumes, (Ankara: 1971).
83. See, Haim Gerber, Economy and Society in an Ottoman City: Bursa, 1600-1700 (Jerusalem: 1988).
84. Koç, "Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nun Nüfus Yapisi," 546.
85. Geza David, "XVI. Yüzyil Osmanh Macaristan'inda Şehirleşme." Osmanh, volume 4, 111-118.
86. Kisaichi, "The Magrib," 60.
87. İnalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 151.
88. Ergenç, Ankara ve Konya, 22.
89. On the administrative groups and institutions in the cities, see Özer Ergenç, "Osmanh Şehrindeki Yo̧netim Kurumlarinin Niteligi U̧zerine Bazi Du̧çu̧nceler." VII. Türk Tarib Kongresi (Ankara: 1981), volume 2, 1265-1274.
90. Özer Ergenç, "Klasik Osmanh Dönemindeki 'Eşraf ve Ayan' üzerine Bazi Bilgiler." Osmanh Araştirmalan, III(1982), 105-118.
91. The guild was the most important organization in the Ottoman cities, fulfilling economic, administrative, social and fiscal functions. It was entirely different from the abi organization which was a brotherhood organization widespread in Anatolia in 13th and 14th centuries. On the role of the guilds in the cities and discussions about their autonomous nature, see Gabriel Baer, "The Administrative, Economic and Social Functions of Turkish Guilds." International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1/1970), 28-50;
92. Gabriel Baer, "Guilds in Middle Eastern History." Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Middle East, From the Rise of Islam to the Present Day, ed. by M. A. Cook (London: 1970), 11-30;
93. İnalcik, Ottoman Empire, 143.
94. The provisioning of İstanbul has been subject of many researches. One of these dealing with the supply of food covers most of the bibliography on the subject. See Rhoads Murphey, "Provisioning of İstanbul: the State and Substance in the Early Modern Middle East." Food and Foodways, 2(1988), 217-363.
95. Guyla Kaldy-Nagy, "Rural and Urban Life in the Age of Sultan Suleyman." Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricum, XXXII/3(1978), 315-316.
96. Nikolai Todorov, "The City in the Bulgarian Lands," 19.
97. Stefanos Yerasimos, "Tanzimatin Kent Reformlan Üzerine." Modernleşme Sürecinde Osmanh Kentleri, ed. by Paul Dumont-François Georgeon, Tarih Vakfi, Yurt Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1990), 1-2.
98. İlhan Tekeli, "19. Yüzyilda İstanbul Metropol Alaninin Dönüşümü." Modernleşme Sürecinde Osmanh Kentleri, ed. by Paul Dumont-François Georgeon, Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1990), 19-30.
99. For the reconstruction of Bursa see, Beatrice Saint-Laurent, "Bir Tiyatro Amatörü: Ahmet Vefik Paşa ve 19. Yüzyihn Son Çeyreǧinde Bursa'nin Yeniden Biçimlenmesi." Modernleşme Sürecinde Osmanh Kentleri, ed. by Paul Dumont-François Georgeon, Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1990), 79-98.
100. Transformation of the Ottoman cities during the modernization period gained momentum by the application of Tanzimat. On this see the following references, Modernleşme Sürecinde Osmanh Kentleri, ed. by Paul Dumont-François Georgeon, Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1990).
101. Musa Çadirci, Tanzimat Döneminde Anadolu Kentlerinin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Yapilan, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayinlan (Ankara: 1991).
102. Hakan Kaynar, "Siyasal İktidar ve Şehir: 19. Yüzyil Osmanh Şehirlerindeki Mekansal Deǧişimler Üzerine." Kebikeç, 10(2000), 146-156.
103. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Ottoman Empire and the Capitalist World Economy: Some Questions for Research." Review, 2-3(1979), 389-400.
104. On the development of cities starting with Tanzimat see, İlhan Tekeli, "Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Kentsel Dönüsüm", Tanzimat'tan Cumburiyet'e Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, 878-890.
105. İlhan tekeli, "Evolution of Spatial Organization in the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic," From Madina To Metropolis, Heritage and Challenge in the Middle Eastern City, ed. by L. Chad Brown (The Darwin Press: Princeton, New Jersey 1973), 257-258.
106. Tekeli, "Spatial Organisation," 259.
107. François Georgeon, "Keçi Kilindan Kalpaǧa: Osmanh İmparatorluǧu'nun Son Yüzyihnda Ankara'nin Gelişimi", Modernleşme Sürecinde Osmanh Kentleri, ed. by Paul Dumant-François Georgeon, Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1997), 103-106.
108. On the developments in İzmir see, D. Goffman, İzmir and the Levantine World, 1550-1650 (Seattle-London: 1990).
109. For the integration of İzmir into the world economy and developing into a port city see, Daniel Goffman, "İzmir: from Village to Colonial Port City." The Ottoman City Between East and West, Halep, İzmir and İstanbul (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge 1999), 79-134.
110. For the transformations in the economy of Sivas in the 19th century see, Ömer Demirel, "XIX Yüzyil Osmanli Şehir Ekonomisi: Sivas Örneǧi." Osmanh, volume 3, 504-513.
111. The port cities of the 19th century have been the subject of a separate study. See, Doǧu Akdenizde Liman Kentleri, ed. by Çaǧlar Keyder, Eyüp Özveren, Donal Quataert, Türitiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfi Yayinlan (İstanbul: 1994).
112. Nikolai Todorov, "Urban Real Estate in the Danubean Vilayet According to the Census of 1866," Society, the City and Industry in the Balkans, 15th-19th Centuries, Variorum Collected Studies Series, ed. by Ivan T. Berend, Great Britain-USA 1989, VIII, 224-225.
113. Todorov, "The City in the Bulgarian Lands," 22-23.
114. Nikolai Todorov, "The Balkan Town in the Second Half of the 19th Century." Etudes Balkaniques, 2(1969), s. 31-50.
115. For a description of the characteristics of the Balkan cities and the formation of bourgeoise and their roles in the events of the 19th and 20th centuries see, Todorov, "Social Structures in the Balkans," 57-68.
116. On the changes in the population of the empire during the 19th century, see Kemal Karpat, Ottoman Population, 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics (University of Madison Press: Madison, 1985);
117. Kemal Karpat, "Population Movements in the Ottoman State in the 19th Century." Contributions a l'Histoire Economique et Sociale de l'Empire Ottoman, ed. Jean Louis Bacque-Grammont et Paul Dumont (Paris: 1983), 385-428.