"So many children at once and so many kinds": Schools and ethno-racial boundaries in early twentieth-century Los Angeles

Western Historical Quarterly

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 453-476

  Wild, Mark ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 67649987077     PISSN: 00433810     EISSN: 19398603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/4144768     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Beatrice Griffith, American Me (Boston, 1948), 321
2. Los Angeles Times, 6 August 1944, 4, sec. 1
3. On non-Japanese in camps, see Carey McWilliams, "Moving Out the Japanese Americans," Harper's Magazine 185 (September 1942): 363
4. Paul Spickard, "Injustice Compounded: Americans and Non-Japanese in Relocation Camps," Journal of American Ethnic History 5 (Spring 1986): 5-22
5. See, for example, Gary Gerstle, Working-Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York, 1989)
6. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990)
7. James R. Barrett, "Americanization from the Bottom Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the American Working Class in the United States, 1880-1930," Journal of American History 79 (December 1992): 996-1020
8. David Bruce Nelson, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton, 2001)
9. Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991)
10. Cohen, Making a New Deal, 29
11. For other discussions of ethnic isolation in northeastern cities, see Gerald D. Suttles, The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City (Chicago, 1968), esp. 33-61
12. Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1982), 41-66
13. Robert A. Slayton, Back of the Yards: The Making of a Local Democracy (Chicago, 1986)
14. Paula S. Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York, 1989), 73-8
15. Judith Rosenberg Raftery, Land of Fair Promise: Politics and Reform in Los Angeles Schools, 1885-1941 (Stanford, CA, 1992), 14-16
16. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (Garden City, NJ, 1985), 117
17. For Los Angeles, see George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993), 71-86
18. Mark Wild, "Rumored Congregation: Cross-Cultural Interaction in the Immigrant Neighborhoods of Early Twentieth Century Los Angeles" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at San Diego, 2000), 27-83
19. See also Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York, 1981), 105-10
20. California Commission of Immigration and Housing, Report on Fresno's Immigration Problem (Sacramento, 1918), 7-12
21. Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites: A Social and Cultural History of Black San Francisco (Philadelphia, 1980), 75-82, 144
22. Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District From 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994), esp. 86-7, 106-34
23. Raftery, Land of Fair Promise, esp. 40-6
24. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 171-2
25. d sess., 1911, vol. 3, 549
26. Raftery, Land of Fair Promise, 12, 67, 101
27. Jennings Lavert Snoddy, "A Survey of the Methods Used in Adjusting the Truant Boy in the Los Angeles Schools" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1932), esp. 18-20
28. Grace M. Turner, "A Study of the Neighborhood Schools of Los Angeles" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1923), 33
29. See chart for 1924 figures; Cloyd F. Gustafson, "An Ecological Analysis of the Hollenbeck Area of Los Angeles" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1940), 66
30. Thomas Weller Donlon, "A Study in Free Reading among Foreign-Born Children" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1933), 13
31. Irving G. Hendrick, The Education of Non-Whites in California, 1849-1970 (San Francisco, 1977), 94
32. Gustafson, "An Ecological Analysis," 58
33. On California school segregation, see Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia, 1990)
34. Charles Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1855-1975 (Berkeley, 1976)
35. Meyer Weinberg, A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States (New York, 1977), 140-77
36. Monroy, Rebirth, 132-4, 199
37. and Hendrick, Education of Non-Whites in California, 1849-70, 93
38. J. Gregory Payne and Scott C. Ratzan, Tom Bradley: The Impossible Dream (Santa Monica, 1986), 17-8
39. Rodney H. Chow, interview by Emma Louie, 24 January 1978, #149, Southern California Chinese American Oral History Project, Department of Special Collections, University of California Los Angeles (hereafter SCCAOHP)
40. Kazuo Kawai, "Life History of Kazuo Kawai," 2 March 1925, #296, Box 31, SRR
41. and Homer K. Watson, "A Study of the Causes of Delinquency among Fifty Negro Boys Assigned to Special Schools in Los Angeles" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1923), 13, 20
42. Dorothy Swaine Thomas, The Salvage: Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, Vol. II (Berkeley, 1953), 422-5, 459-60
43. Louise Leung Larson, Sweet Bamboo: A Saga of a Chinese American Family (Los Angeles, 1989), 62, 98
44. William C. Smith, "Interview with Julia Suski," 13 August 1924, #B-64, Box 35, SRR
45. Katheryn Campbell Graham, "The Negro in Los Angeles," Los Angeles School Journal (hereafter LASJ), 4 June 1925, 19-20. (LASJ can be found in the open stacks of the University of California Los Angeles research library.)
46. California Commission of Immigration and Housing, A Community Survey Made of Los Angeles City (Sacramento, 1917)
47. David Alexander Bridge, "A Study of the Agencies which Promote Americanization in the Los Angeles City Recreation Center District," (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1920)
48. Sherry Katz, "Socialist Women and Progressive Reform," in California Progressivism Revisited, ed. William Deverell and Tom Sitton (Berkeley, 1994), 117-143
49. Turner, "A Study of the Neighborhood Schools"
50. Nora Sterry, "The Sociological Basis for the Reorganization of the Macy Street School," (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1924)
51. LASJ, 15 February 1918, 118-9
52. Nora Sterry, "The Neighborhood School," California Quarterly of Secondary Education 2 (January 1927): 117-23
53. See Emma Reybold, "Brotherization," LASJ, 2 November 1924, 18-9
54. and Margaret Dooher, "The Junior Citizenship Class - Central Junior High School," 5 December 1920, 3-4
55. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation, 26, 62-76
56. See also Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York, 1981)
57. Emory Bogardus, "Second Generation Mexicans," Social Studies and Research 23 (1928-1929): 276-83
58. H.W. Robinson, "Mrs. Manspeaker's Americanization Class," 20 May 1924, #116, Box 26, SRR
59. Turner, "Study of the Neighborhood Schools," 23-4
60. Emory Bogardus, The City Boy and His Problems: A Survey of Boys Life in Los Angeles [sic] (Los Angeles, 1926), 42
61. Catherine Holt, "Interview with Mr. and Mrs. William S. Yip," 13 January 1925,#315, Box 31, SRR; Griffith, American Me, 167, 153
62. Hollywood Daily Citizen, 27 November 1922, in #266, Box 29, SRR
63. Bogardus, The City Boy and His Provlems, 107
64. Turner, "Study of Neighborhood Schools," 32
65. On language schools, see Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed, 36-7, 69-72
66. Mark Him Lai, "Retention of the Chinese Heritage: Chinese Schools in America before World War II," Chinese America: History and Perspectives 14 (2000): 10-31
67. Yoshide Matsubayashi, "The Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii and California from 1892-1941," (master's thesis, University of San Francisco, 1984)
68. Alfred E. Lee, interview by Beverly Chan, 17 February 1979 and 6 January 1980, #46
69. and Billy W. Lew, interview by Beverly Chan, 19 October and 1 November 1979, #20, SCCAOHP
70. See also Kit King Louis, "A Study of American-Born and American-Reared Chinese in Los Angeles," (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1931), 68, 104
71. Kawai, "Life History," 8
72. Louise Leung Larson, Sweet Bamboo, 98
73. Louis, "Study of American-Born," 59
74. See also Lisa See, On Gold Mountain: The One-Hundred Year Odyssey of My Chinese-American Family (New York, 1995), 203
75. Catherine Holt, "Interview with Chiyoe Sumi," 21 February 1925, #299, Box 31, SRR
76. Lucie Cheng et al., ed., Linking Our Lives: Chinese American Women of Los Angeles, a Joint Project of the Asian American Studies Center, University of California Los Angeles and the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California (Los Angeles, 1984), 41-2
77. Alice May Fesler, "The Study of the Relation of Inadequate Parental Control to Truancy among Girls" (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1922), 23-6, 40-1
78. More generally, see Paul R. Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth Century America (Madison, WI, 1989), 61-6, 168-97, 297-301
79. Pauline V. Young, The Pilgrims of Russian-Toun: The Community of Spiritual Christian Jumpers in America (Chicago, 1932), 245
80. Edward L.C., "Life History"; SRR
81. Gustafson, "Sociological Analysis," 167
82. The author's figures accounted for Mexicans who registered as "white." This low figure results in patt from California miscegenation laws, and does not account for mixed couples married outside the state, common-law marriages, or informal dating. Constantine Panunzio, "Intermarriage in Los Angeles, 1924-1933," American Journal of Sociology 47 (March 1942): 690-701. I discuss inter-ethno-racial dating and marriage more extensively in "Rumored Congregation," 264-317
83. See E.J. Lickley, "Child Labor and the Issuance of Work Permits," LASJ, 9 September 1918, 26
84. Snoddy, "Adjusting the Truant Boy," 39, 70-1
85. William C. Smith, "The Cosmopolitan Population of Los Angeles in Relation to the Schools," LASJ, 27 April 1925, 13-4
86. Louis B. Perry and Richard S. Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1991-1941 (Berkeley, 1963), 65
87. Snoddy, "Adjusting the Truant Boy," 70-1
88. J. Harold Thomas, "Los Angeles Children Who Work," LASJ, 30 January 1928, 26
89. Bridge, "Study of Agencies," 50
90. More generally, see Stephen Lassonde, "Learning and Earning: Schooling, Juvenile Employment, and the Early Life Course in Late Nineteenth Century New Haven," Journal of Social History 29 (Summer 1996): 839-70
91. and "Should I Go, or Should I Stay?: Adolescence, School Attainment, and Patent-Child Relations in Italian Immigrant Families of New Haven, 1900-1940," History of Education Quarterly 38 (Spring 1998): 37-60
92. Kunitani, interview; Mary Lanigan, "Second Generation Mexicans in Belvedere," (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1932), 39-44
93. William Wilson McEuen, "A Survey of Mexicans in Los Angeles," (master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1914), 27
94. Marshal Royal, quoted in Clora Bryant et al., Central Avenue Sounds: Jazz in Los Angeles (Berkeley, 1998), 26
95. Keong Lee, interview by Beverly Chan, 21 July 1980 and 20 February 1981, #125, SCCAOHP
96. Arthur Goud, "Prevocational Courses in the Junior High Schools," LASJ, 27 November 1920, 3-6
97. Lanigan, "Second Generation Mexicans," 45-50
98. Cheng, Linking Our Lives, 18
99. Swain, The Salvage, 422-5
100. Bogardus, The City Boy and His Problems, 107
101. Griffith, American Me, 46
102. Lillian Sokoloff, "The Russians in Los Angeles," Studies in Sociology: Sociological Monograph no. 11, 3 (March 1918), 5-7
103. Hendrick, The Education of Non-Whites, 94
104. See Gustafson, "Ecological Analysis," 87-8
105. Hendrick, Education of Non-Whites in California, 105
106. Joao H. Costa Vargas, "Blacks in the City of Angels' Dust," (Ph.D. diss., University of California San Diego, 1999), 77-92
107. Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American, 77
108. Ricardo Griswold del Castillo, The Los Angeles Barrio, 1850-1890: A Social History (Berkeley, 1979), 146
109. See David G. Gutiérrez, "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the 'Third Space': The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico," Journal of American History 86 (September 1999): 481-517
110. Wild, "Rumored Congregation," 327-404