Current status of nanoparticle-based imaging agents for early diagnosis of cancer and atherosclerosis

Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 20-35

  Saravanakumar, Gurusamy ^a   Kim, Kwangmeyung ^b   Jae, Hyung Park ^a   Rhee, Kyehan ^c   Ick, Chan Kwon ^b  

^a Kyung Hee University   (South Korea)

^b Korea Institute of Science and Technology   (South Korea)

^c Myong Ji University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Angiogenesis; Atherosclerosis; Bioimaging; Endothelial; Imaging probes; Nanoparticles

Indexed keywords

ANGIOGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BIOIMAGING; ENDOTHELIAL; IMAGING PROBES;

BIOCHEMISTRY; IMAGING TECHNIQUES; LIGANDS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES; PROBES; SELF ASSEMBLY;

NANOPARTICLES;

CARBON 11; CARBON MONOXIDE C 11; COPOLYMER; FERMOXTRAN 10; FERRIC OXIDE; FERUMOXYTOL; FLUORINE 18; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; GADOLINIUM CHELATE; GOLD NANOPARTICLE; HEMOGLOBIN; INDOCYANINE GREEN; IODINE 123; IODINE 125; MAGNETITE; METHOXY POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL; NANOPARTICLE; NITROGEN 13; OXYGEN 15; OXYGEN C 15; POLYLYSINE; QD 705; QUANTUM DOT; SUPERPARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE; SUPERPARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLE; TECHNETIUM 99M; TRITIUM OXIDE; ULTRA SMALL PARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLE; ULTRASMALL SUPERPARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ANGIOGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; DRUG ACCUMULATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HUMAN; ISOTOPE LABELING; MICROBUBBLE; NEAR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; ULTRASOUND; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

ANIMALS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CONTRAST MEDIA; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; HUMANS; NANOPARTICLES; NEOPLASMS;

EID: 67649813881     PISSN: 15507033     EISSN: 15507041     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1166/jbn.2009.030     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. J. A. Vita and J. F. Keaney, Jr., Endothelial function: A barometer for cardiovascular risk? Circulation 106, 640 (2002).
2. M. E. Widlansky, N. Gokce, J. F. Keaney, Jr., and J. A. Vita, The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 42, 1149 (2003).
3. B. R. Zetter, Angiogenesis and tumor metastasis. Annu. Rev. Med. 49, 407 (1998).
4. C. K. Glass and J. L. Witztum, Atherosclerosis: The road ahead. Cell 104, 503 (2001).
5. P. O. Bonetti, L. O. Lerman, and A. Lerman, Endothelial dysfunction: A marker of atherosclerotic risk. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23, 168 (2003).
6. F. A. Jaffer, P. Libby, and R. Weissleder, Molecular and cellular imaging of atherosclerosis emerging applications. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47, 1328 (2006).
7. S. A. Wickline, A. M. Neubauer, P. M. Winter, S. D. Caruthers, and G. M. Lanza, Molecular imaging and therapy of atherosclerosis with targeted nanoparticles. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 25, 667 (2007).
8. J. Folkman, Angiogenesis: An organizing principle for drug discovery? Nat. Rev. Durg Discov. 6, 273 (2007).
9. J. Folkman, Tumor angiogenesis: Therapeutic implications. N. Engl. J. Med. 285 1182 (1971).
10. J. C. Miller, H. H. Pien, D. Sahani, A. G. Sorensen, and J. H. Thrall, Imaging angiogenesis: Applications and potential for drug development. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97, 172 (2005).
11. O. C. Farokhad and R. Langer, Nanomedicine: Developing smarter therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 58, 1456 (2006).
12. V. Wagner, A. Dullaart, A. K. Bock, and A. Zweck, The emerging nanomedicine landscape. Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 1211(2006).
13. R. Weissleder and U. Mahmood, Molecular imaging. Radiology 219, 316 (2001).
14. M. E. Akerman, W. C. Chan, P. Laakkonen, S. N. Bhatia, and E. Ruoslahti, Nanocrystal targeting in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 12617 (2002).
15. P. Sharma, S. Brown, G. Walter, S. Santra, and B. Moudgil, Nanoparticles for bioimaging. Adv. Colloid and Interface Sci. 123, 471 (2006).
16. S. Wang and S. Philip, Low, folate-mediated targeting of antineoplastic drugs, imaging agents, and nucleic acids to cancer cells. J. Control Release 53, 39 (1998).
17. H. Maeda, J. Wu, T. Sawa, Y. Matsumura, and K. Hori, Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: A review. J. Control Release 65, 271 (2000).
18. S. A. Wickline and G. M. Lanza, Molecular imaging, targeted therapeutics, and nanoscience. J. Cell Biochem., Suppl. 39, 90 (2002).
19. M. F. Kircher, U. Mahmood, R. S. King, R. Weissleder, and L. Josephson, A multimodal nanoparticle for preoperative magnetic resonance imaging and intraoperative optical brain tumor delineation. Cancer Res. 63, 8122 (2003).
20. III-functionalized fluorescent quantum dots as multimodal imaging probes. Adv. Mater 18, 2890 (2006).
21. M. Morganti, A. Carpi, A. Nicolini, I. Gorini, B. Glaviano, M. Fini, G. Giavaresi, Ch. Mittermayer, and R. Giardino, Atherosclerosis and cancer: Common pathways on the vascular endothelium. Biomed. Pharmacother 56, 317 (2002).
22. D. E. Sosnovik and R. Weissleder, Emerging concepts in molecular MRI. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 18, 4 (2007).
23. F. G. Blankenberg and H. W. Strauss, Nuclear medicine applications in molecular imaging. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 16, 352 (2002).
24. 18F-2-fluoro- 2-deoxyglucose uptake after orthotopic heart transplantation assessed by positron emission tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 533 (1997).
25. R. Weissleder, A clear vision for in vivo imaging. Nat. Biotechnol. 19, 316 (2001).
26. A. Becker, C. Hessenius, K. Licha, B. Ebert, U. Sukowski, W. Semmler, B. Wiedenmann, and C. Grotzinger, Receptor-targeted optical imaging of tumors with near-infrared fluorescent ligands. Nat. Biotechnol. 19, 327 (2001).
27. R. Weissleder, C. H. Tung, U. Mahmood, and A. Bodgdanov, Jr., In vivo imaging of tumors with protease-activated near infrared fluorescent probes. Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 375 (1999).
28. E. G. Schutt, D. H. Klein, R. M. Mattrey, and J. G. Riess, Injectable microbubbles as contrast agents for diagnostic ultrasound imaging: The key role of perfluorochemicals. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 3218 (2003).
29. B. A. Kaufmann and J. R. Lindner, Molecular imaging with targeted contrast ultrasound. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 18, 11(2007).
30. J. N. Marsh, K. C. Partlow, D. R. Abendschein, M. J. Scott, G. M. Lanza, and S. A. Wickline, Molecular imaging with targeted perfluorocarbon nanoparticles: Quantification of the concentration dependence of contrast enhancement for binding to sparse cellular epitopes. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 33, 950 (2007).
31. G. E. R. Weller, F. S. Villanueva, A. L. Klibanov, and W. Wagner, Modulating targeted adhesion of an ultrasound contrast agent to dysfunctional endothelium. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 30, 1012 (2002).
32. R. Ross and L. Harker, Hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis. Science 193, 1094 (1976).
33. M. I. Cybulsky and M. A. Gimbroen, Jr., Endothelial expression a molecular adhesion molecule during atherosclerosis. Science 251, 788 (1991).
34. Y. Nakashima, E. W. Raines, A. S. Plump, J. L. Bleslow, and R. Ross, Upregulation of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 at atherosclerosis prone sites on the endothelium in the ApoE-deficient mouse. Arteriolscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 18, 842 (1998).
35. K. Liyama, L. Hajira, M. Liyama, H. Li, M. DiChiara, B. D. Medoff, and M. I. Cybuisky, Pattrens of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in rabbit and mouse atherosclerotic lesions and at sites predisposed lesion formation. Cir. Res. 85, 199 (1999).
36. D. O. Haskard, E. T. Keelan, P. T. Chapman, M. Robinson, R. M. Binns, and F. Jama, Quantifying and imaging activated endothelium in inflammation. Endothel. Cell Res. Ser. 4, 135 (1998).
37. M. P. Bevilacqua, S. Stenhelin, M. A. Gimbrone, Jr., and B. Seed, Endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule 1: An inducible receptor for neutrophils related to complement regulatory proteins and lectins. Science 243, 1160 (1989).
38. M. Neeman, A. A. Gilad, H. Dafni, and B. Cohen, Molecular imaging of angiogenesis. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 25, 1 (2007).
39. Y. Sato, Molecular diagnosis of tumor angiogenesis and antiangiogenic cancer therapy. Int. J. Clin. Oncol. 8, 200 (2003).
40. R. A. Brekken and P. E. Thorpe, VEGF-VEGF receptor complexes as markers of tumor vascular endothelium. J. Control Release 74, 173 (2001).
41. 3 binding peptides for tumor targeting. J. Control Release 114, 175 (2006).
42. L. W. Dobrucki and A. J. Sinusas, Imaging angiogenesis. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 18, 90 (2007).
43. Q. A. Pankhurst, J. Connolly, S. K. Jones, and J. Dobson, Applications of magnetic nanoparticles in biomedicine. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 36, R167 (2003).
44. A. J. Gupta and M. Gupta, Synthesis and surface engineering iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 26, 3995 (2005).
45. R. Weissleder, G. Elizondo, J. Wittenberg, A. S. Lee, L. Josephson, and T. J. Brady, Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide characterization of a new class of contrast agents for MR imaging. Radiology 175, 489 (1990).
46. A. C. Li and C. K. Glass, The macrophage foam cell as a target for therapeutic intervention. Nat. Med. 8, 1235 (2002).
47. M. E. Kooi, V. C. Cappendijk, K. B. Cleutjens, A. G. Kessels, P. J. Kitslaar, M. Borgers, P. M. Fredrick, M. J. Daemen, and J. M. van Engelshoven, Accumulation of ultra small superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in human atherosclerotic plaques can be detected by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 107, 2453 (2003).
48. R. A. Trivedi, C. Mallawarachi, J. M. U-King-Im, M. J. Graves, J. Horsley, M. J. Goddard, A. Brown, L. Wang, P. J. Kirkpatrick, J. Brown, and J. H. Gillard, Identifying inflamed carotid plaques using in vivo USPIO-enhanced MR imaging to label plaque macrophages. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 26, 1601 (2006).
49. R. A. Trivedi, J. M. U-King-Im, M. J. Graves, J. J. Cross, J. Horsley, M. J. Goddard, J. N. Skepper, G. Quartey, E. Warburton, I. Joubert, L. Wang, P. J. Kirkpatrick, J. Brown, and J. H. Gillard, In vivo detection of macrophages in human carotid atheroma: Temporal dependence of ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide-enhanced MRI. Stroke 35, 1631 (2004).
50. V. Amirbekian, M. J. Lipinski, K. C. Briley-Saebo, S. Amirbekian, J. G. S. Aguinaldo, D. B. Weinreb, E. Vucic, J. C. Frias, F. Hyafil, V. Mani, E. A. Fisher, and Z. A. Fayad, Detecting and assessing macrophages in vivo to evaluate atherosclerosis noninvasively using molecular MRI. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 961 (2007).
51. L. O. Johansson, A. Bjomerud, H. K. Ahlstrom, D. L. Ladd, and D. K. Fujii, A targeted contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging of thrombus: Implications of spatial resolution. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 13, 615 (2001).
52. H. W. Kang, D. Torres, L. Wald, R. Weissleder, and A. A. Bogdanov, Jr., Targeted imaging of human endothelialspecific marker in a model of adoptive cell transfer. Lab. Invest. 86, 599 (2006).
53. M. Funovics, X. Montet, F. Reynolds, R. Weissleder, and L. Josephson, Nanoparticle for the optical imaging of tumor E-selectin. Neoplasia 7, 904 (2005).
54. S. Bounty, S. Laurent, L. V. Elst, and R. N. Muller, Specific E-selectin targeting with a superparamagnetic MRI contrast agent. Contrast Media Mol. Imaging 1, 15 (2006).
55. F. A. Jaffer, C. H. Tung, A. K. Houng, T. O'Loughin, G. L. Reed, and R. Weissleder, MRI of blood coagulation factor XIII activity using a novel peptide-derivatized caged iron oxide nanoparticle (F13-CLIO). Mol. Imaging 1, 217 (2002).
56. R. Weissleder, K. Kelly, E. Y. Sun, T. Shtatland, and L. Josephson, Cell-specific targeting of nanoparticles by multivalent attachment of small molecules. Nat. Biotechnol. 23, 1418 (2005).
57. K. A. Kelly, J. R. Allport, A. Tsourkas, V. R. S. Patil, L. Josephson, and R. Weissleder, Detection of vascular adhesion molecule-1 expression using a novel multimodal nanoparticle. Circ. Res. 96, 327 (2005).
58. M. Nahrendorf, F. A. Jaffer, K. A. Kelly, D. E. Sosnovik, E. Aikawa, P. Libby, and R. Weissleder, Noninvasive vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 imaging identifies inflammatory activation of cells in atherosclerosis. Circulation 114, 1504 (2006).
59. C. Zhang, M. Jugold, E. C. Woenne, T. Lammers, B. Morgenstern, M. M. Mueller, H. Zentgraf, M. Bock, M. Eisenhut, W. Semmler, and F. Kiessling, Specific targeting of tumor angiogenesis by RGD-conjugated ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles using a clinical 1.5-T magnetic resonance scanner. Cancer Res. 67, 1555 (2007).
60. A. D. Yancy, A. R. Olzinski, T. C.-C. Hu, S. C. Lenhard, K. Aravindhan, S. M. Gruver, P. M. Jacobs, R. N. Willette, and B. M. Jucker, Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide contrast agents in rabbit: Critical determinants of atherosclerotic plaque labeling. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 21, 432 (2005).
61. X. Michalet, F. F. Pinaud, L. A. Bentolila, J. M. Tsay, S. Doose, J. J. Li, G. Sundaresan, A. M. Wu, S. S. Gambhir, and S. Weiss, Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics. Science 307, 538 (2005).
62. K. C. Kang, W. B. Tan, and Y. Zhang, Solubilization of quantum dots for biological applications. J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 2, 165 (2006).
63. M. Bruchez, Jr., M. Moronne, P. Gin, S. Weiss, and A. P. Alivisatos, Semiconductor nanocrystals as fluorescent biological labels. Science 281, 2013 (1998).
64. M. E. Akerman, W. C. W. Chan, P. Laakkonen, S. N. Bhatia, and E. Ruoslahti, Nanocrystal targeting in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 12617 (2002).
65. D. R. Larson, W. R. Zipfel, R. M. Williams, S. W. Clark, M. P. Bruchez, F. W. Wise, and W. W. Webb, Water-soluble quantum dots for multiphoton fluorescence imaging in vivo. Science 300, 1434 (2003).
66. D. E. Ferrara, D. Weiss, P. H. Carnell, R. P. Vito, D. Vega, X. Gao, S. Nie, and W. R. Taylor, Quantitative 3D fluorescence technique for the analysis of en face preparations of arterial walls using quantum dot nanocrystals and two-photon excitation laser scanning microscopy. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 290, R114 (2006).
67. X. H. Gao, Y. Y. Cui, R. M. Levenson, L. W. K. Chung, and S. M. Nie, In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat. Biotechnol. 22, 969 (2004).
68. W. J. M. Mulder, R. Koole, R. J. Brandwijk, G. Storm, P. T. K. Chin, G. J. Strijkers, C. D. M. Donega, K. Nicolay, and A. W. Griffioen, Quantum dots with a paramagnetic coating as a bimodal molecular imaging probe. Nano Lett. 6, 1 (2006).
69. W. Cai, D. W. Shin, K. Chen, O. Gheysens, Q. Cao, S. X. Wang, S. S. Gambhir, and X. Chen, Peptide-labeled near-infrared quantum dots for imaging tumor vasculature in living subjects. Nano Lett. 6, 669 (2006).
70. M.-K. So, C. Xu, A. M. Loening, S. S. Gambhir, and J. Rao, Self-illuminating quantum dot conjugates for in vivo imaging. Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 339 (2006).
71. E. Chang, J. S. Miller, J. Sun, W. W. Yu, V. C. Colvin, R. Drezek, and J. L. West, Protease-activated quantum dot probes. Biochem. Bioph. Res. Co. 334, 1317 (2005).
72. C. Kirchner, T. Liedl, S. Kudera, T. Pellegrino, A. M. Javier, H. E. Gaub, S. Stolzle, N. Fertig, and W. J. Parak, Cytotoxicity of colloidal CdSe and CdSe/ZnS nanoparticles. Nano Letf. 5, 331 (2005).
73. M. C. Daniel and D. Astruc, Gold nanoparticles: Assembly, supramolecular chemistry, quantum-size-related properties, and applications toward biology, catalysis, and nanotechnology. Chem. Rev. 104, 293 (2004).
74. P. Mukheijee, R. Bhattacharya, P. Wang, L. Wang, S. Basu, J. A. Nagy, A. Atala, D. Mukhopadhyay, and S. Soker, Antiangiogenic properties of gold nanoparticles. Clin. Cancer Res. II, 3530 (2005).
75. K. Sokolov, M. Follen, J. Aaron, I. Pavlova, A. Malpica, R. Lotan, and R. R. Kortum, Real-time vital optical imaging of precancer using anti-epidermal growth factor receptor antibodies conjugated to gold nanoparticles. Cancer Res. 63, 1999 (2003).
76. P. J. Debouttière, S. Roux, F. Vocanson, C. Billotey, O. Beuf, A. F. Réguillon, Y. Lin, S. P. Rostaing, R. Lamartine, P. Perriat, and O. Tillement, Design of gold nanoparticles for magnetic resonance imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater. 16, 2330 (2006).
77. J. A. Copland, M. Eghtedari, V. L. Popov, N. Kotov, N. Mamedova, M. Motamedi, and A. A. Oraevsky, Bioconjugated gold nanopartides as a molecular based contrast agent: Implications for imaging of deep tumors using optoacoustic tomography. Mol. Imaging. Biol. 6, 341 (2004).
78. J. F. Hainfeld, D. N. Slatkin, T. M. Focella, and H. M. Smilowitz, Gold nanoparticles: A new X-ray contrast agent. Br. J. Radiol. 79, 248 (2006).
79. V. Kattumuri, K. Katti, S. Bhaskaran, E. J. Boote, S. W. Casteel, G. M. Fent, D. J. Robertson, M. Chandrasekhar, R. Kannan, and K. V. Katti, Gum arabic as a phytochemical construct for the stabilization of gold nanoparticles: In vivo pharmacokinetics and X-ray-contrast-imaging studies. Small 3, 333 (2007).
80. S. Link, M. B. Mohamed, and M. A. El-Sayed, Simulation of the optical absorption spectra of gold nanorods as a function of their aspect ratio and the effect of the medium dielectric constant. J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 3073 (1999).
81. H. Wang, T. B. Huff, D. A. Zweifel, W. He, P. S. Low, A. Wei, and J. X. Cheng, In vitro and in vivo two-photon luminescence imaging of single gold nanorods. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 15752 (2005).
82. H. Ding, K. T. Yong, I. Roy, H. E. Pudavar, W. C. Law, E. J. Bergey, and P. N. Prasa, Gold nanorods coated with multilayer polyelectrolyte as contrast agents for multimodal imaging. J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 12552 (2007).
83. X. Huang, I. H. El-Sayed, W. Qian, and M. A. El-Sayed, Cancer cells assemble and align gold nanorods conjugated to antibodies to produce highly enhanced, sharp, and polarized surface raman spectra: A potential cancer diagnostic marker. Nano Lett. 7, 1591 (2007).
84. K. Kim, S. W. Huang, S. Ashenazi, and M. O'Donnell, Photoacuostic imaging of early inflammatory response using gold nanorods. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 223901 (2007).
85. A. W. H. Lin, N. A. Lewinski, J. L. West, N. J. Halas, and R. A. Drezek, Optically tunable nanoparticle contrast agents for early cancer detection: Model-based analysis of gold nanoshells. J. Biomed. Opt. 10, 64035 (2005).
86. A. M. Gobin, M. H. Lee, N. J. Halas, W. D. James, R. A. Drezek, and J. L. West, Near-infrared resonant nanoshells for combined optical imaging and photothermal cancer therapy. Nano Lett. 7, 1929 (2007).
87. R. Duncan, The dawning era of polymer therapeutics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2, 347 (2003).
88. A. Mitre, J. Mulholland, A. Nan, E. McNeill, H. Ghandehari, and B. R. Line, Targeting tumor angiogenic vasculature using polymer-RGD conjugates. J. Control Release 102, 191 (2005).
89. A. S. Hoffman, P. S. Stayton, M. E. H. El-Sayed, N. Murthy, V. Bulmus, C. Lackey, and C. Cheung, Design of "smart" nano scale delivery systems for biomolecular therapeutics. J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 3, 213 (2007).
90. J. H. Park, S. Lee, J. H. Kim, K. Park, K. Kim, and I. C. Kwon, Polymeric nanomedicine for cancer therapy. Prog. Polym. Sci. 33, 113 (2007).
91. J. H. Kim, K. Park, H. Y. Nam, S. Lee, K. Kim, and I. C. Kwon, Polymers for bioimaging. Prog. Polym. Sci. 32, 1031(2007).
92. Z. R. Lu, F. Ye, and A. Vaidya, Polymer platforms for drug delivery and biomedical imaging. J. Control Release 122, 269 (2007).
93. M. Funovics, R. Weissleder, and C. H. Tung, Protease sensors for bioimaging. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 377, 956 (2003).
94. C. Bremer, C. H. Tung, A. Bogdanov, and R. Weissleder, Imaging of differential protease expression in breast cancers for detection of aggressive tumor phenotypes. Radiology 222, 814 (2002).
95. F. A. Jaffer, D. E. Kim, L. Quinti, C. H. Tung, E. Aikawa, A. N. Pande, R. H. Kohler, G. P. Shi, P. Libby, and R. Weissleder, Optical visualization of cathepsin K activity in atherosclerosis with a novel, protease-activatable fluorescence sensor. Circulation 115, 2292 (2007).
96. 125I-labelled polyamidoamine dendrimers in vivo. J. Control Release 65, 133 (2000).
97. M. V. Backer, T. I. Gaynutdinov, V. Patel, A. K. Bandyopadhyaya, B. T. Thirumamagal, W. Tjarks, R. F. Barth, K. Claffey, and J. M. Backer, Vascular endothelial growth factor selectively targets boronated dendrimers to tumor vasculature. Mol. Cancer Ther. 4, 1423 (2005).
98. V. S. Talanov, C. A. S. Regino, H. Kobayashi, M. Bernardo, P. L. Choyke, and M. W. Brechbiel, Dendrimer-based nanoprobe for dual modality magnetic resonance and fluorescence imaging. Nano Lett. 6, 1459 (2006).
99. G. M. Lanza, K. D. Wallace, M. J. Scott, W. P. Cacheris, D. R. Abendschein, D. H. Christy, A. M. Sharkey, J. G. Miller, P. J. Gaffney, and S. A. Wickline, A novel site-targeted ultrasonic contrast agent with broad biomedical application. Circulation 94, 3334 (1996).
100. G. M. Lanza and S. A. Wickline, Targeted ultrasonic Contrast agents for molecular imaging and therapy. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 28, 625 (2003).
101. P. M. Winter, A. M. Morawski, S. D. Caruthers, R. W. Fuhrhop, H. Zhang, T. A. Williams, J. S. Allen, E. K. Lacy, J. D. Robertson, G. M. Lanza, and S. A. Wickline, Molecular imaging of angiogenesis in early-stage atherosclerosis with alpha(v)beta3-integrin-targeted nanoparticles. Circulation 108, 2270 (2003).
102. A. M. Morawski, P. M. Winter, K. C. Crowder, S. D. Caruthers, R. W. Fuhrhop, M. J. Scott, J. D. Robertson, D. R. Abendschein, G. M. Lanza, and S. A. Wickline, Targeted nanoparticles for quantitative imaging of sparse molecular epitopes with MRI. Magn. Reson. Med. 51, 480 (2004).
103. 111In nanoparticles. Int. J. Cancer 120, 1951 (2007).
104. 3 Integrin-targeted fumagillin nanoparticles inhibit angiogenesis in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 26, 2103 (2006).
105. B. J. Lestini, S. M. Sagnella, Z. Xu, M. S. Shive, N. I. Richter, J. Jayaseharan, A. J. Case, K. K. Marchant, J. M. Anderson, and R. E. Marchant, Surface modification of liposomes for selective cell targeting in cardiovascular drug delivery. J. Control Release 78, 235 (2002).
106. S. Dagar, A. Krishnadas, I. Rubinstein, M. J. Blend, and H. Onyuksel, VIP grafted sterically stabilized liposomes for targeted imaging of breast cancer: In vivo studies. J. Control Release 91, 123 (2003).
107. S. M. Demos, H. A. Onyuksel, B. J. Kane, A. Nagarj, R. Greene, M. Klegerman, and D. D. McPherson, In vivo targeting of acoustically reflective liposomes for intravascular and transvascular ultrasonic enhancement. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 33, 867 (1999).
108. J. R. Linder, J. Song, J. Christiansen, A. L. Kibanov, F. Xu, and K. Ley, Ulltrasound assessment of inflammation and renal tissue injury with microbubbles targeted to P-selectin. Circulation 104, 2107 (2001).
109. J. C. Frias, Y. Ma, K. J. Williams, Z. A. Fayad, and E. A. Fisher, Properties of a versatile nanoparticle platform contrast agent to image and characterize atherosclerotic plaques by magnetic resonance imaging. Nano Lett. 6, 2220 (2006).
110. M. J. Lipinski, V. Amirbekian, J. C. Frias, J. G. S. Aguinaldo, V. Mani, K. C. Briley-Saebo, V. Fuster, J. T. Fallon, E. A. Fisher, and Z. A. Fayad, MRI to detect atherosclerosis with gadolinium-containing immunomicelles targeting the macrophage scavenger receptor. Magn. Reson. Med. 56, 601(2006).
111. D. Pantarotto, J. P. Briand, M. Prato, and A. Bianco, Translocation of bioactive peptides across cell membranes by carbon nanotubes. Chem. Commun. (Camb). 1, 16 (2004).
112. B. Sitharaman and L. J. Wilson, Gadofullerenes and gadonanotubes: A new paradigm for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent probes. J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 3, 342 (2007).
113. J. H. Choi, F. T. Nguyen, P. W. Barone, D. A. Heller, A. E. Moll, D. Patel, S. A. Boppart, and M. S. Strano, Multimodal biomedical imaging with asymmetric single-walled carbon nanotube/iron oxide nanoparticle complexes. Nano Lett. 7, 861(2007).