Competing networks: Roman Catholic ecclesiastics in French North America, 1610-58

Canadian Historical Review

Volumn 80, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 539-585

  Codignola, Luca ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 67649613334     PISSN: 00083755     EISSN: 17101093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/CHR.80.4.539     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Charles H. Lippy, Robert Choquette, and Stafford Poole, Christianity Comes to the Americas, 1492-1776 (New York: Paragon House 1992)
2. Mark A. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans 1992)
3. Jacob E. Cooke et al., eds., Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1993), 3: 503-61
4. Terrence Murphy and Roberto Perin, eds., A Concise History of Christianity in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1996)
5. The following works proved specially useful to understand the concept of a North Atlantic network in the early seventeenth century: Kenneth G. Davies, The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1974)
6. John G. Reid, Acadia, Maine, and New Scotland: Marginal Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1981)
7. John F. Bosher, 'The Political and Religious Origins of La Rochelle's Primacy in Trade with New France, 1627-1685,' French History 7 (1993): 286-312
8. Bosher, 'The Franco-Catholic Danger, 1660-1715,' History: The Journal of the Historical Association 79 (1994): 5-30
9. and Bosher, 'Huguenot Merchants and the Protestant International in the Seventeenth Century,' William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 50 (1995): 77-102
10. On the Jesuits, sources and studies are plentiful, but we know very little of the Recollets, and seldom does available information on the Capuchins include the age or region of provenance of the missionary. The latest catalogue of religious personnel in New France is Louis Pelletier, Le clergé en Nouvelle-France. Étude démographique et répertoire biographique (Montréal: Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal 1993), who focuses on the ecclesiastics who lived along the St Lawrence rather than on the movements of these ecclesiastics across the Atlantic Ocean. On account of this, Pelletier leaves Acadia, Louisiana, and the future United States territory out of his survey
11. For a general overview of the Roman sources, see Pierre Hurtubise, Luca Codignola, and Fernand Harvey, eds., L'Amérique du Nord française dans les archives religieuses de Rome, 1600-1922 (Québec: Éditions de l'IQRC and Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1999), which includes articles by Perin, Giovanni Pizzorusso, and Matteo Sanfilippo
12. For a shorter and less analytical overview of the argument made in the present article, see Codignola, 'The Roman Catholic Clergy in French and British North America, 1610-58: Few, Unco-operative, and Ill-Informed?' in Germaine Warkentin and Carolyn Podruchny, eds., De-Centring the Renaissance: Canada and Europe in Multi-Disciplinary Perspective, 1500-1700, forthcoming
13. Codignola, 'The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians in French and British North America, 1486-1760,' in Karen O. Kupperman, ed., America in European Consciousness, 1493-1750 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1995), 195-242
14. In the years 1610-58, twenty-two Catholic missionaries (three secular priests and nineteen Jesuits) were also active in Newfoundland (1627-9) and in the Maryland-Virginia region (1633-58). See Codignola, 'Roman Catholic Ecclesiastics in English North America, 1610-58: A Comparative Assessment,' Canadian Catholic Historical Association, Historical Studies 65 (1999): 107-24. There was no communication whatsoever with their confrères operating in French North America
15. David B. Quinn et al., eds., New American World: A Documentary History of North America to 1612 (New York: Arno Press and Hector Bye 1979), 1: 97 (doc. 59)
16. Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 1481-1620: From the Bristol Voyages of the Fifteenth Century to the Pilgrim Settlement at Plymouth: The Exploration, Exploitation, and Trial-and-Error Colonization of North America by the English (London: George Allen & Unwin 1974), 124 and following 294
17. Lucien Campeau, L'évêché de Québec (1674): Aux origines du premier diocèse érigé en Amérique française (Québec: La Société historique de Québec 1974), 3
18. Campeau, ed., Monumenta Novae Franciae (Rome, Quebec, and Montreal: Apud Monumenta Hist. Soc. Iesu, Les Presses de l'Université Laval, Institutum Historicum Soc. Iesu, and Les Éditions Bellarmin 1967-96 to date) [MNF], 1: La première mission d'Acadie (1602-1616) (1967), 11
19. Dominique Deslandres, 'Séculiers, laïcs, Jésuites: Épistèmes et projets d'évangelisation et d'acculturation en Nouvelle France: Les premières tentatives, 1604-1613,' Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome 101 (1989): 763-4
20. A partial list of the secular priests for the period 1604-29 is in Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (Montréal: Fides 1963-97 to date), 2: Le comptoir (1604-1627) (1966), 460
21. Laurier Turgeon, 'Le temps des pêches lointaines: Permanences et transformations (vers 1500-vers 1850),' in Michel Mollat du Jourdin, ed., Histoire des pêches maritimes en France (Toulouse: Privat 1987), 136-8
22. L. Szilas, 'Les fondations des Jésuites en Europe jusqu'en 1615,' in Hubert Jedin, Kenneth S. Latourette, and Jochen Martin, eds., Atlas d'histoire de l'église: Les églises chretiennes hier at aujourd'hui (Turnhout: Brepols 1990, 58, 78; also 60 B4, 84-5, 89-90
23. Also Michel Péronnet, 'Les établissements des Jésuites dans le Royaume de France à l'époque moderne,' in Marc Fumaroli, ed., Les Jésuites parmi les hommes aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Clermont-Ferrand: Association des Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines 1987), 466-7, 472, 476-80
24. John W. O'Malley, The First Jesuits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1993)
25. O'Malley, 'The Society of Jesus,' in Richard L. DeMolen, ed., Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation. In Honor of John C. Olin on His Seventy-Fifth Birthday (New York: Fordham University Press 1994), 138-63
26. and Sanfilippo, 'Missionari, esploratori, spie e strateghi: i gesuiti nel Nord America francese (1604-1763),' in Flavio Rurale, ed., I religiosi a corte. Teologia, politica e diplomazia in antico regime. Atti del seminario di studi Georgetown University a Villa 'Le Balze.' Fiesole, 20 ottobre 1995 (Rome: Bulzoni 1998), 287-331
27. MNF, 1: 4-6 (doc. 2)
28. Campeau, 'Les initiatives de la S. Congrégation en faveur de la Nouvelle-France,' in Josef Metzler, ed., Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide Memoria Rerum. 350 anni a servizio delle missioni, 1622-1972 (Freiburg: Herder 1971-6), I/2: 1622-1700 (1972), 729
29. William C. Wicken, 'Encounters with Tall Sails and Tall Tales: Mi'kmaq Society, 1500-1760' (PhD dissertation, McGill University 1994), 317-20, is a short but good summary of missionary activity with the Mi'kmaq, though the lists of missionaries are mostly based on unreliable sources
30. Codignola, 'Holy See,' 200
31. Henry P. Biggar, ed., A Collection of Documents Relating to Jacques Cartier and the Sieur de Roberval (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada 1930), 207-9
32. Also Trudel, Histoire, 1: Les vaines tentatives, 1524-1603 (1963), 132
33. Leslie C. Green, 'Claims to Territory in Colonial America,' in L.C. Green and Olive P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press 1989), 27-34
34. Adrien Demoustier, 'Les catalogues du personnel de la province de Lyon en 1587, 1606 et 1636,' Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 42 (1973): 3-105
35. Adrien Demoustier, 'Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 43 (1974): 3-84
36. Bernard Dompnier, 'L'activité missionnaire des Jésuites de la province de Lyon dans la première moitié du XVIIe siècle. Essai d'analyse des Catalogi,' Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome 97/2 (1985): 941-59
37. Pierre Biard, SJ, to Claudio Aquaviva, SJ, Tournon, late April 1602. The letter is lost, but it is cited in MNF, 1: 3 (doc. 1)
38. Also Archivio Segreto Vaticano, Vatican City [ASV], Segreteria di Stato, Francia, vol. 53, ff. 41v-42r
39. Archivio Segreto Vaticano, vol. 54, f. 131r
40. Archivio Storico della Sacra Congregazione 'de Propaganda Fide,' Rome [APF], Informazioni, vol. 136, ff. 568rv-9rv, 570rv
41. ASV, Segreteria di Stato, Lettere di Vescovi, vol. 20, ff. 366rv-72rv
42. ASV, Segreteria Apostolica, Segreteria dei Brevi, vol. 526, ff. 147r-8r, 149rv
43. Lazaro Iriarte, Franciscan History: The Three Orders of St. Francis of Assisi (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press 1983), 303-45
44. For the several Recollet provinces, see 'Tableaux des Provinces,' in Léandre Poirier, 'Les Franciscains en Nouvelle-France, 1615-1848,' Chroniques et documents 39 (1986): 42
45. They seem to have been based in Emenenic (later Caton's) Island, in the Rivière Saint-Jean, but some of them travelled to Port-Royal and Miscou. See Trudel, Histoire, 2: 103, 418
46. Also MNF, 2: Établissement à Québec (1616-1634) (1979), 60
47. The list of Recollet missionaries is now in Hervé Blais, 'Nos missionnaires récollets (1615-1629; 1670-1849),' Chroniques et documents 33 (1980): 4-47
48. Also Poirier, 'Franciscains Récollets,' in Odoric-Marie Jouve et al., Dictionnaire biographique des Récollets missionnaires en Nouvelle-France, 1615-1645 - 1670-1849 ([Montréal], Bellarmin 1996)
49. Pelletier, Clergé, 193-208 (on Canada only)
50. and Wicken, Encounters, 315-17 (on Acadia only)
51. On Biard's later life, see MNF, 2: 3-39, 41-52 (docs. 1-5, 8-4)
52. Information on Massé in MNF, 2: 59
53. On the 'Indies' in Europe and elsewhere and their relative importance, see Mario Scaduto, 'Tra inquisitori e riformati. Le missioni dei gesuiti tra Valdesi della Calabria e delle Puglie,' Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu 15 (1946): 1-76
54. Mario Rosa, Religione e società nel mezzogiorno tra Cinque e Seicento (Bari: Laterza 1976), 245-72
55. Alain Croix, La Bretagne aux 16e et 17e siècles. La vie - la mort - la foi (Paris: Maloine 1981), 1211-40
56. Adriano Prosperi, '"Otras Indias": Missionari della Controriforma tra contadini e selvaggi,' in Scienze credenze occulte livelli di cultura. Convegno Internazionale di Studi (Firenze, 26-30 giugno 1980) (Florence: Leo S. Olschki 1982), 205-34
57. Croix, 'Missions, Hurons et Bas-Bretons au XVIIe siècle,' Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest (Anjou, Maine, Touraine) 95 (1988): 487-98
58. Deslandres, 'Le modèle français d'intégration socio-religieuse, 1600-1650. Missions intérieures et premières missions canadiennes' (thèse de doctorat, Université de Montréal 1990)
59. O'Malley, First Jesuits, 126-7
60. Dompnier, 'La Compagnie de Jésus et la mission de l'intérieur,' in Luce Giard and Louis de Vaucelles, eds., Les jésuites à l'âge baroque, 1540-1640 (Grenoble: Jérôme Millon 1996), 155-79
61. These applications, written by those who asked to be sent to the foreign missions, were called indipetae because the applicants asked to be sent to 'the Indies.' They are in Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu, Rome [ARSI], Fondo Gesuitico, 752/20
62. The best study of indipetae is Pizzorusso, 'Le choix indifférent: mentalités et attentes des jésuites aspirants missionnaires dans l'Amérique française au XVIIe siècle,' Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome 109/2 (1997): 881-94
63. Biographical notice of Tuffet in Trudel, Histoire, 3/1: La seigneurie des Cent Associé: Les événements (1979), 420
64. of the Tuffet family, in Bosher, Men and Ships in the Canada Trade, 1660-1760: A Biographical Dictionary (Ottawa: Environment Canada 1992), 120
65. and in Claude Massé, 'Jean Tuffet et ses activités en faveur de la Nouvelle-France (1626-1634),' La Société Historique Acadienne, Les Cahiers 18 (1987): 5-34
66. The list of Jesuit missionaries is in Trudel, 2: 460-1
67. Pelletier, Clergé, 173-91 (on Canada only). Neither Trudel nor Pelletier list missionaries to Acadia or to Louisiana
68. For these regions, the only available list is still Arthur E. Jones, 'Catalogue of Jesuit Missionaries to New France and Louisiana, 1611-1800,' in Reuben G. Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791 (Cleveland: Burrow Brothers 1896-1901), 71: Lower Canada, Illinois, 1759-1791[.]
69. Miscellaneous Data (1901), 120-81
70. The Jones list should be used together with Arthur Melançon, Liste des Missionnaires Jésuites Nouvelle France et Louisiane, 1611-1800 (Montréal: Collège Sainte-Marie 1929)
71. See also Wicken, Encounters, 313-15. For the period up to 1656, all data must now be revised and supplemented by the data contained in MNF
72. Marc Lescarbot, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, contenant les navigations, découvertes, & habitations faites par les François és Indes Occidentales & Nouvelle-France (Paris: J. Millot 1609, republished in Paris in 1611, 1612, 1617, and 1618). A translation into English appeared in London in 1609, and a translation into German in Augsburg in 1613
73. Also Lescarbot, La Conversion des Savvages qui ont esté baptizés en la Novvelle France, cette annee 1610. Avec vn bref Recit du voyage du Sieur De Povtrincourt (Paris: J.Millot 1610)
74. [Sagard], Le grand voyage dv pays des Hurons, situé en l'Amerique uers la mer douce ez derniers confins de la nouuelle France Ou il est traicte de tout ce qui est du pañys & du gouuernement des Sauuages Auec un Dictionnaire de La langue huronne. Par Fr. Gabriel Sagard Recollet de St. Francois de la prouince St. Denis (Paris: D. Moreau 1632)
75. Sagard, Histoire du Canada et des Voyages que les Frères Mineurs Récollets y ont faicts pour la conversion des Infidelles (Paris: C. Sonnius 1636)
76. See also Sagard, Le grand voyage du pays des Hurons, suivi du Dictionnaire de la langue huronne, ed. Jack Warwick (Montréal: Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal 1998)
77. [Xiste Le Tac], Histoire chronologique de la Nouvelle France ou Canada depuis sa découverte (mil cinq cents quatre) juques en l'an mil six cents trente deux Par le Père Sixte Le Tac, Recollects. Publiée pour la première fois d'après le manuscrit original de 1689 et accompagnée de Notes et d'un Appendice tout composé de documents originaux et inédits, ed. by Eugène Reveillaud (Paris: G. Fischbacher et al. 1888), a rather dubious attribution
78. Chrestien Le Clercq, Premier établissement de la foy dans la Nouvelle France, contenant la publication de l'Évangile, l'Histoire des Colonies Françoises, & les fameuses découvertes depuis le Fleuve de saint Laurent, la Louisiane & le fleuve Colbert jusqu'au Golphe Mexique, achevés sous la conduite de feu Monsieur de la Salle (Paris: A. Auroy 1691). Both works are often used as primary sources for the history of the early Recollets in New France, but they are of a much later date
79. The report is printed in Sagard, Histoire, 880-92
80. Trudel, Histoire, 3/2: La seigneurie des Cent-Associés. La société (1983), 344-6
81. Trudel, Catalogue des immigrants, 1632-1662 (Montréal: Fides 1983)
82. Jones, 'Catalogue'; Melançon, Liste
83. Trudel, Histoire, 3/2: 345
84. 6: Recherche de la paix (1644-1646) (1992), 752
85. Codignola, 'The Battle Is Over: Campeau's Monumenta vs. Thwaites' Jesuit Relations, 1602-1650,' European Review of Native American Studies 10 (1996): 3-10, explains why Thwaites, ed., Jesuit Relations, should now be replaced by MNF
86. Codignola and Pizzorusso, 'Les lieux, les méthodes et les sources de l'expansion missionnaire du Moyen Age au XVIIe siècle: Rome sur la voie de la centralisation,' in L. Turgeon, Denys Delâge, and Réal Ouellet, eds., Transferts culturels et métissages Amérique/Europe XVIeBXXe siècle / Cultural Transfer, America and Europe. 500 Years of Interculturation (Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1996), 489-512
87. Also see Prosperi, 'Il missionario,' in Rosario Villari, ed., L'uomo barocco (Bari: Laterza 1991), 179-218
88. Codignola, Guide to Documents Relating to French and British North America in the Archives of the Sacred Congregation 'de Propaganda Fide' in Rome, 1622-1799 (Ottawa: National Archives of Canada 1991), 2-3, 7-8. All the documents preserved in APF mentioned in this article as such or as reprinted in MNF are indexed in the Guide and its calendar
89. The latter is now also available as part of ArchiVIA 4. Colonial Archives. Findings Aids on CD-ROM (Ottawa: National Archives of Canada 1996)
90. The Jesuits had insisted on the same privileges in North America that were accorded to them in the East Indies. Propaganda maintained that faculties were granted to all missionaries on an equal basis, and that the Jesuits were not a special case. See APF, SOCG, vol. 74, ff. 196rv, 201rv
91. SOCG, vol. 417, ff. 287rv, 290rv
92. APF, Lettere, vol. 19, f. 48rv
93. MNF, 3: 482-4 (docs. 82-3)
94. 4: Les grandes épreuves (1638-1640) (1989), 13-16, 57-61, 209-10, 250-2 (docs. 12-13, 39-40, 74, 99)
95. 5: La bonne nouvelle reçue (1641-1643) (1990), 570-1, 591-2, 626-7 (docs. 101, 114, 119)
96. 5: La bonne nouvelle reçue (1641-1643) (6: 320-1, 438, 517-18, 537-8, 542 (docs. 73, 78, 123, 135, 139)
97. 7: Le témoignage du sang (1647-1650) (1994), 233-7 (docs. 46-7)
98. 3: Fondation de la mission huronne (1635-1637) (1987), 158-72 (doc. 54)
99. APF, Acta, vol. 7/ii, ff. 87v, 160rv, 192rv
100. APF, SOCG, vol. 105, ff. 333rv, 340rv, 386rv, 389rv, 387rv-8rv
101. SOCG, vol. 259, ff. 189rv, 196rv, 191rv-2rv
102. SOCG, vol. 317, ff. 105rv, 112rv, 116rv, 129rv
103. SOCG, vol. 395, ff. 55rv, 60rv, 320rv-1rv, 374rv-5rv
104. APF, Lettere, vol. 15, f. 34rv
105. APF, Congressi, Missioni, Miscellanee, vol. 9, ff. 375r, 443rv-7rv
106. APF, Congregazioni particolari [CP], vol. 7, ff. 428rv-35rv
107. APF, Informazioni, vol. 136, ff. 522rv-9rv
108. Also Campeau, Évêché, 33-49
109. Codignola, Guide, 7-8
110. The province of Aquitaine tried to send more missionaries in 1643-4 and in 1653-4. See APF, SOCG, vol. 268, ff. 191rv-200rv
111. SOCG, vol. 407, ff. 6rv, 19rv (10 missionaries ready to go if approved)
112. APF, Acta, vol. 16, ff. 26v-7r
113. APF, Lettere, vol. 22, f. 19v
114. Trudel, Histoire, 3/1: 355-62
115. Lists of the Sulpician priests may be found in Henri-Joseph Gauthier, Sulpitiana (Montréal: Au Bureau des Oeuvres paroissiales de St-Jacques 1926)
116. and Pelletier, Clergé, 209-17
117. to be supplemented by Brigitte Caulier, 'Les "Messieurs" de Saint-Sulpice en Nouvelle-France, 1657-1759,' in [Gérard Aumont, ed.], Les Prêtres de Saint-Sulpice au Canada. Grands figures de leur histoire (Sainte-Foy: Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1992), 3-28
118. APF, SOCG, vol. 144, ff. 63rv, 66rv
119. SOCG, vol. 411, ff. 360rv-1rv, 380rv, 389rv
120. APF, Acta, vol. 17, f. 90rv
121. APF, Lettere, vol. 24, ff. 65v-6r
122. Machon's had already been granted permission by Bernardino Cardinal Spada, a former nuncio in France who was, at the time, Protector of the Minims and a member of Propaganda. See Giuseppe Maria Roberti, OM, Disegno storico dell'ordine dei Minimi dalla morte del Santo Istitutore ai nostri tempi (1507-1902) (Rome: Tipografia Poliglotta della S.C. de Propaganda Fide, Società Tipografico-Editrice Romana, and Industria Tipografica Romana 1902-22), 2: (1600-1700) (1908), 590, 688-9
123. There is little information on the eight secular priests. The data in Trudel, Catalogue
124. APF, Acta, vol. 14, f. 281r; APF, SOCG, vol. 402, ff. 200rv, 202rv, 201rv; APF
125. APF, SOCG, vol. 402, ff. 200rv, 202rv, 201rv
126. APF, Lettere, vol. 9, ff. 136v-7rv
127. APF, Miscellanee diverse, vol. 20, ff. 437rvB40rv
128. Clarence-Joseph d'Entremont, Nicolas Deny: Sa vie et son oeuvre (Yarmouth, NS: L'imprimerie Lescarbot Ltée 1982), 379
129. Marjorie A. MacDonald, Fortune & La Tour: The Civil War in Acadia (Toronto: Methuen 1983)
130. Blais, 'Nos missionnaires Récollets,' 38, 41, 45
131. d'Entremont, Histoire du Cap-Sable de l'an mil au traité de Paris, 1763 (Eunice: Hebert Publications 1981), 2: 487-9
132. The North American jurisdictions of the Recollet provinces of Aquitaine and Paris (Saint-Denys) in 1632-70 is unclear, but until 1632 Acadia was under the jurisdiction of the province of Aquitaine (Poirier, 'Franciscains Récollets en Nouvelle-France,' 42). The names of the 1631 Recollets are unknown, and even their number is uncertain. In 1653 or 1654 Dulong applied for permission to return to New France, claiming he had been there eleven years, then from 1630 to 1640 or 1641
133. Codignola, 'Pacifique de Provins and the Capuchin Network in Africa and America,' in Patricia Galloway and Philip P. Boucher, eds., Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society Martinique and Guadeloupe, May 1989 (Lanham: University Press of America 1992), 46-60
134. Raoul de Sceaux, Histoire des Frères Mineurs Capucins de la province de Paris (1601-1660) (Blois: Éditions Notre-Dame de la Trinité 1965 [the second volume is not dated and has no place or publisher])
135. Bonaventura a Mehr, 'L'expansion des Capucins en Europe du 16e au 18e siècle,' in Jedin et al., eds., Atlas, 58, 79 (Europe)
136. Servus Gieben, ed., Atlante Cappuccino: Opera inedita di Silvestro da Panicale (Rome: Istituto Storico dei Cappuccini 1990), 147, 167 (province of Paris)
137. Also Elisabeth G. Gleason, 'The Capuchin Order in the Sixteenth Century,' in DeMolen, ed., Religious Orders of the Catholic Reformation, 30-57
138. For a thorough investigation of the inner working of a Capuchin province, see Dompnier, Enquête au pays des frères des anges: Les Capucins de la province de Lyon aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Saint-Étienne: Publications de l'Université de Saint-Étienne 1993)
139. APF, SOCG, vol. 138, ff. 22rv-3rv, 35rv
140. SOCG, vol. 142, ff. 53rv, 58rv
141. SOCG, vol. 288, ff. 25rv-8rv
142. APF, SOCG, vol. 139, ff. 91rv, 99rv
143. APF, SOCG, vol. 141, ff. 9rv, 14rv, 105rv, 116rv
144. APF, SOCG, vol. 260, ff. 39rv-43rv
145. (partially printed in Candide de Nant, OFM Cap, ed., 'Letter of Father Ignace re Acadia (According to a photographic copy of the original in the archives of the Propaganda, Rome),' Report Concerning Canadian Archives (1904), appendix H, 331-41), 404rv, 498rv
146. APF, CP, vol. 3, ff. 222rv, 225rv
147. APF, CP, vol. 6, ff. 277rv, 94rv
148. Codignola, 'Pacifique de Provins,' MNF, 6: 389
149. Harald E.L. Prins, The Mi'kmaq: Resistance, Accommodation, and Cultural Survival (Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace 1996), 71-7
150. Collection de manuscrits contenant lettres, mémoires, et autres documents historiques relatifs à la Nouvelle-France, recueillis aux archives de la province de Québec, ou copiés à l'étranger, mis en ordre et édités sous les auspices de la Législature de Québec, avec table, etc. (Québec: Imprimerie A. Coté et Cie. 1883-5), 1 (1883): 65; d'Entremont, Histoire du Cap-Sable, 2: 444, 484. The name of the provincial of Aquitaine is unknown to this writer
151. Propaganda had tried to involve the Capuchins in a large North American mission as early as in 1625. APF, Acta, vol. 7/i, f. 87rv
152. APF, Acta, vol. 3, f. 245rv
153. Acta, vol. 7/i, f. 164v
154. Acta, vol. 8, ff. 123v-4r
155. SOCG, vol. 391, ff. 12rv-3rv
156. APF, Lettere, vol. 5, ff. 92v-3r
157. Lettere, vol. 10, f. 140r
158. Lettere, vol. 12, f. 62rv
159. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Nouv. Acq., Fonds fr., 16738, ff. 145(bis)rv-145(ter)rv; MNF, 2: 273-6 (doc. 104)
160. APF, SOCG, vol. 199, ff. 397rv-8rv, 407rv-8rv
161. [Claude d'Abbeville], L'arrivée des Peres Capvcins en l'Inde Nouuelle, appellée Maragvon, Auec la reception que leur ont faict les Sauuages de ce pays, & la conuersion d'iceux à nostre Saincte Foy. Declarée par vne lettre que le R.P. Clavde d'Abbeville Predicateur Capucin, enuoye à Frere Martial, pareillement Capucin, & à M. Foullon ses Freres (Paris: A. Le Fèvre 1612); other editions in 1612 (Paris: G. Blaizot) and 1613 (Augsburg, Bergamo, Lyon, Paris [3], Tournon, and Treviso)
162. Arsène de Paris, Dernière lettre
163. Claude d'Abbeville, Les fruicts de la mission des reverends peres Capuchins en l'isle de Maragnan (Lille: C. Beys 1614)
164. [Claude d'Abbeville], Histoire de la mission des Pères Capvcins en l'Isle de Maragnan et terres circonuoysines ov est traicte des singularitez admirables & des Meurs merueilleuses des Indiens habitans de ce pais Auec les missiues et aduis qui ont este enuoyez de nouue. Par le R.P. Claude d'Abbeuille Predicateur Capucin (Paris: F. Huby 1614)
165. Yves d'Evreux, OFM Cap, Suitte de l'Histoire des choses plus memorables advenues en Maragnan es annes 1613. & 1614. Second traité (Paris: F. Huby 1615). Apparently, there was a third chronicler of the Brazilian mission, the Capuchin Jean-François de Bourdemare (fl.1617), whose Relatio de populis brasiliensibus, published in Madrid in 1617, has not survived
166. See Metodio da Nembro, Storia dell'attività missionaria dei minori cappuccini nel Brasile (1538?-1889) (Rome: Institutum Historicum Ord. Fr. Min. Cap. 1958), 33-53, especially 46 n69. François de Razilly, who directed the Brazil expedition, was one of the brothers of Isaac de Razilly
167. Acta, vol. 15, ff. 29v-30r
168. Also see Codignola, 'Pacifique de Provins,' 47, 50
169. Pacifique de Provins, Briève Relation du Voyage des Isles de l'Amérique (Paris: N. & J. de la Coste 1646)
170. On the Capuchin internal dissension, see Raoul de Sceaux, Histoire, 2: 261-574
171. Denise Thiollet, 'Les Capucins et la Congégation de la Propagande d'après le mss 112 conservé chez les pères capucins (1624-1647),' Revue historique 112 (oct.-déc. 1988): 387-93
172. For the French background, see Elizabeth Rapley, The Dévotes. Women and Church on Seventeenth-Century France (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1990)
173. Rapley, 'Women and the Religious Vocation in Seventeenth-Century France,' French Historical Studies 18 (1994): 613-31
174. For the female congregations in Canada, see Marguerite Jean, Évolution des communautés religieuses de femmes au Canada de 1639 à nos jours (Montréal: Fides 1977), 9-25
175. Michel Thériault, The Institutes of Consecrated Life in Canada from the Beginning of New France up to the Present: Historical Notes and References (Ottawa: National Library of Canada 1980), 105-6, 141, 188-9
176. Micheline Dumont et al., L'histoire des femmes au Québec depuis quatre siècles (Montréal: Quinze 1982), 35-48
177. Alison Prentice et al., Canadian Women. A History (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1988), 42-4, 54-9
178. Leslie Choquette, '"Ces Amazones du Grand Dieu": Women and Mission in Seventeenth Century Canada,' French Historical Studies 17 (1992): 627-55
179. Marie-Claire Daveluy, 'Jeanne Mance,' Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 1: 1000 to 1700 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1966) 483-7, is a prime example of the intricacies of the dévot network
180. Rapley, 'Life and Death of a Community. The Congrégation de Notre-Dame of Troyes, 1628-1672,' Canadian Catholic Historical Association, Historical Studies 57 (1991): 5-20
181. On the Ursulines and the Hospitalières, see Monique Nolin, Répertoire numérique détaillé de la série Relations avec les autres communautés féminines, 1651-1920 (Québec: Les Archives des Ursulines de Québec 1991), 75-6
182. C. Turgeon and M. Nolin, Répertoire numérique détaillé de la série Relations avec les autorités ou organismes ecclésiastiques, 1653-1920 (Québec: Les Archives des Ursulines de Québec 1991), 12-13
183. Turgeon, Inventaire sommaire de la sous-série Affaires de France (Québec: Les Archives des Ursulines de Québec 1991), 8-9, 95-8
184. Deslandres, 'Femmes missionnaires en Nouvelle-France. Les débuts des Ursulines et des Hospitalières à Québec,' in Jean Delumeau, ed., La religion de ma mère. Le rôle des femmes dans la transmission de la foi (Paris: Cerf 1992), 209-24
185. Deslandres, 'Le rayonnement des Ursulines en Nouvelle-France,' in Les religieuses dans le cloître et dans le monde (Saint-Étienne: Publications de l'Université de Saint-Étienne 1994), 885-99
186. Nadia Fahmy-Eid, 'L'éducation des filles chez les Ursulines de Québec sous le Régime français,' in Fahmy-Eid and Dumont, eds., Maitresses de nation, maîtresses d'école. Femmes, famille et éducation dans l'histoire du Québec (Montréal: Boréal Express, 1983), 49-76
187. Louis Châtellier, 'Les Jésuites et la naissance d'un type: le dévot,' in Fumaroli, ed., Jésuites parmi les hommes, 257-64
188. Deslandres, 'Séculiers, laïcs, Jésuites'
189. Deslandres, Modèle français d'intégration socio-religieuse
190. Deslandres, 'Réforme catholique et altérité: arrière-plan socio-religieux de la fondation de Montréal,' in Jean-Rémi Brault, ed., Les origines de Montréal. Actes du colloque organisé par la Société historique de Montréal (mai 1992) (Ottawa: Leméac 1993), 11-37
191. Alain Tallon, La Compagnie du Saint-Sacrement (1629-1667): Spiritualité et société (Paris: Cerf 1990)
192. Tallon, 'La compagnie du Saint-Sacrement et la fondation de Montréal,' in Brault, ed., Origines de Montréal, 39-62
193. The affiliation of forty-six of them is certain, whereas that of the remaining four associates is not supported by conclusive evidence. See Daveluy, La Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal, 1639-1663: Son histoire, ses membres, son manifeste (Montréal: Fides 1965)
194. MNF, 5: 437-47; Les veritables motifs de messievrs et dames de la Societe de Nostre Dame de Monreal Pour la Conuersion des Sauuages de la nouuelle France ([no place]: [no publisher] 1643); APF, SOCG, vol. 199, ff, 399rv, 406rv. The nuncio in France, Girolamo Grimaldi, archbishop of Seleucia, seems to have been better
195. The nuncio in France, Girolamo Grimaldi, archbishop of Seleucia, seems to have been better informed than Pacifique de Provins: APF, SOCG, vol. 405, ff. 296rv, 301rv
196. Quebecen. Beatificationis et canonizationis ven. Servi Dei Francisci de Montmorency-Laval Episcopi Quebecensi (+1708). Altera nova positio super virtutibus ex officio critice disposita (Rome: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis 1956), 1: 16-18 (doc. IX)
197. ARSI, gal. 39, f. 176v
198. APF, Acta, vol. 27, ff. 124v-5r
199. ASV, Segreteria Apostolica, Segreteria dei Brevi, vol. 1378, ff. 454rv-5r
200. Noël Baillargeon, Le Séminaire de Québec sous l'episcopat de Mgr de Laval (Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1972), 1-42
201. Also APF, SOCG, vol. 421, ff. 84rv-5rv, 88rv-9rv, 98rv-107rv
202. Udienze, vol. 1, f. 27rv
203. Henri Chappoulie, Aux origines d'une Église. Rome et les missions d'Indochine au XVIIe siècle (Paris: Bloud et Gay 1943), 1: 113-17
204. Alain Forest, Les missionnaires français au Tonkin et au Siam. (XVIIème-XVIIIème siècles). Analyse comparée d'un relatif succès et d'un total échec (Paris: L'Harmattan 1998), 1: Histoire du Siam, 48-57. Contrary to this writer, Forest maintains that, until the 1650s, the French dévots 's'intéress[aient] seulement au Canada' (49)
205. ASV, Fondo Consistoriale, Processus Consistoriales, vol. 56, ff. 260rv-4rv, 269rv-72rv, 265rv, 268rv, 266rv-7rv
206. The best study on Laval's appointment is Sanfilippo, 'Tra curia di Roma e corte di Francia: la fondazione della diocesi di Québec (1631-1674),' in Gianvittorio Signorotto and Maria Antonietta Visceglia, eds., La corte di Roma tra cinque e seicento 'teatro' della politica europea (Rome: Bulzoni 1998), 481-507, based on an imposing array of new sources