The emergence of a somali state: Building peace from civil war in Somaliland

African Affairs

Volumn 108, Issue 432, 2009, Pages 371-389

  Walls, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CIVIL WAR; DEMOCRACY; ELECTION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; MILITARY GOVERNMENT; STATE ROLE;

AFRICA; EAST AFRICA; SOMALIA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 67649446310     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: 14682621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/adp019     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Robert I. Rotberg, 'The new nature of nation-state failure', Washington Quarterly 25, 3 (2002), p. 85.
2. For descriptions of Somalia as a failed state, see Pål Kolstø, 'The sustainability and future of unrecognised quasi-states', Journal of Peace Research 43, 6 (2006), pp. 723-40;
3. Christopher J. Coyne, 'Reconstructing weak and failed states: Foreign intervention and the nirvana fallacy', Foreign Policy Analysis 2, 4 (2006), pp. 343-60;
4. Jennifer Milliken and Keith Krause, 'State failure, state collapse, and state reconstruction: Concepts, lessons and strategies', Development and Change 33, 5 (2002), pp. 753-74;
5. Robert I. Rotberg, 'Failed states in a world of terror', Foreign Affairs 81 (2002), pp. 127-41.
6. Robert D. Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy: How scarcity, crime, overpopulation, tribalism, and disease are rapidly destroying the social fabric of our planet', Atlantic Monthly 273, 2 (1994), p. 17.
7. The remit of this article does not extend to an examination of the form of that state or the political science of its evolution. The period under review covers the first three years in the contemporary process in Somaliland, ending with a transfer of power from a military administration to a civilian one, and the adoption of an interim constitution in the form of a National Charter. The foundation laid at that stage enabled further consolidation and the eventual, although not immediate, sustained cessation of conflict.
8. Ahmed Yusuf Farah with Ioan M. Lewis, 'Somalia: The roots of reconciliation: Peace-making endeavours of contemporary lineage leaders: a survey of grassroots peace conferences in "Somaliland" ' (survey for ActionAid, London, 1993), p. 8.
9. Maria Brons, Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State: Somalia - from statelessness to statelessness? (International Books, Utrecht, 2001), p. 218.
10. The Arabic term diya is preferred in much literature on the subject, but the Somali term mag is used in this case.
11. Ioan M. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy: A study of pastoralism and politics among the northern Somali of the Horn of Africa (James Currey, Oxford, 1999), p. 200.
12. Hierarchies tend to be more pronounced in the southern Somali territories than in the northern (Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, pp. 196-213;
13. Virginia Luling, The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes (University of London, unpublished PhD dissertation, 1971), p. 357).
14. Michael van Notten, The Law of the Somalis: A stable foundation for economic development in the Horn of Africa (Red Sea Press, Asmara/ Trenton, NJ, 2005).
15. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, p. 6.
16. Ibid.;
17. Notten, The Law of the Somalis.
18. The Gadabuursi and 'Iise are often collectively referred to as belonging to the Dir clan family (for example, in Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy. However, in line with the comment above on the difficulty of establishing a clear typology of clan, there is some argument over whether this grouping is justified in terms of culture and descent. Many definitions of the Dir clan family suggest a dispersed grouping that includes a range of disconnected clans, inhabiting a number of locations throughout the Somali territories. Some (generally non-Isaaq) even categorize the Isaaq as members of the Dir family.
19. Joakim Gundel and Ahmed A. Omar Dharbaxo, 'The predicament of the "Oday": The role of traditional structures in security, rights, law and development in Somalia' (Report for the Danish Refugee Council and Oxfam Novib, Nairobi, 2006).
20. Interview, Ahmed Mohamed Siilaanyo, Hargeisa, 11 April 2007.
21. Focus Group meeting, Hargeisa, 28 May 2007; interview, Abdirahman Aw Ali Farah, Hargeisa, 30 June 2007; interview, Mahamed Kaahin, Burao, 8 August 2007.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.;
24. Marlene Renders, 'Traditional' Leaders and Institutions in the Building of the Muslim Republic of Somaliland (University of Ghent, unpublished PhD thesis, 2006).
25. Interview, Abdillahi Habane Dheere, Hargeisa, 3 September 2007.
26. Saleebaan Afqarshe in Focus Group meeting, 28 May 2007; interview, Abdirahman Aw Ali Farah, Hargeisa, 12 April 2007; interview, Siilaanyo, Hargeisa, 11 April 2007; interview, Kaahin, 8 August 2007.
27. Boobe Yusuf Duale, personal communications, July, August, 31 October, 1 November and 10 December 2007.
28. Interview, Boobe Yusuf Duale, Hargeisa, 7 April 2007; interview, Siilaanyo, 11 April 2007; interview, Yusuf Mohamed 'Tuke' Ali, Hargeisa, 4 September 2007.
29. The referendum confirmed Djibouti's status as a French territory, the result of a similar but disputed vote in 1958. Many Somalis felt that the 1967 poll reflected a bias towards the Afar population of Djibouti, but, nevertheless, the result represented a major setback to ambitions for Somali reunification. See Ioan M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (James Currey, Oxford, 2002), pp. 181 and 203.
30. John Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia? A tale of tragic blunders (HAAN Associates, London, 1994) pp. 133-4.
31. Mark Bradbury, Becoming Somaliland (Progressio/James Currey, London/Oxford, 2008), p. 54.
32. Interview, Siilaanyo, 11 April 2007.
33. Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia?, p.140.
34. Interview, Duale, 7 April 2007; interview, Siilaanyo, 11 April 2007.
35. Interview, Aw Ali Farah, 12 April 2007.
36. Interview, Garaad Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', Hargeisa, 21 August 2007.
37. Interview, Duale, 7 April 2007.
38. Gadhweyne, Shaa'ir and Abdillaahi in Focus Group meeting, Hargeisa, 21 June 2007; interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007; interview, Professor Suleiman Ahmed Gulaid, Amoud University, Boorame, 26 August 2007.
39. Mohamed Ali Shire was highly respected amongst the Dhulbahante, and had been a member of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), the heart of the Siyaad Barre government. Interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007.
40. This was the council of elders or guurti established by the SNM, augmented by representatives from the non-SNM.
41. Shaa'ir and Garaad Barre in Focus Group meeting, 21 June 2007; interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007; interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007.
42. Rashid Gadhwayne in Focus Group meeting, 21 June 2007; Patrick S. Gilkes, 'Political events in Somalia/Somaliland, July-October 1992' (supplementary update on Somalia/Somaliland, London, 1992), p. 13.
43. Ibid., pp. 13-14.
44. Garaad Barre in Focus Group meeting, 21 June 2007; interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007.
45. Interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007.
46. Ibid.
47. The word duudsi (denial) is preferred by some.
48. Interview, Ismail Haji Nur, Erigavo, 12 August 2007.
49. Interview, Siilaanyo, 11 April 2007.
50. Garaad Barre in Focus Group meeting, 21 June 2007; interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007.
51. Interview, Maxamed Saleh, Hargeisa, 9 September 2007.
52. Interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007.
53. Interview, Aw Ali Farah, 12 April 2007.
54. Interview, Duale, 7 April 2007.
55. Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia?, p. 143; interview, Garaad Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', Hargeisa, 23 August 2007; interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007.
56. Interview, Boobe Yusuf Duale, Hargeisa, 29 August 2007; interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007.
57. Interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007; interview, Garaad Barre, Hargeisa, 27 August 2007; interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007; Sheikh Ibrahim Sheikh Yusuf Sheikh Madar, 'Xulashada Ergooyinka ka Qaybgelaya Shirka Boorama' (memorandum and handwritten notes supplied by Garaad Barre, Jamhuuriyadda Somaliland, Hargeisa, 1993).
58. Qaad or khat is a leaf popularly chewed in the Somali areas and in Yemen. The effect is relatively mild but tends to induce insomnia and a sense of well-being, and to suppress appetite.
59. Interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007; interview, Garaad, 27 August 2007; interview, Gulaid, 26 August 2007.
60. Interview, Saleh, 9 September 2007.
61. Interview, Duale, 7 April 2007.
62. Interview, Garaad, 27 August 2007; interview, Gulaid, 26 August 2007; interview, Habane Dheere, 3 September 2007.
63. Guurti, 'Shirweynaha Guurtida Beelaha Soomaaliland: Go'aankii Doorashada Madaxweynaha iyo Madaxweyne Ku-Xigeenka Soomaaliland' (memorandum circulated at conclusion of Boorame conference, Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliland, Hargeisa, 1993); interview, Siilaanyo, 11 April 2007; interview, Garaad Barre, 27 August 2007.
64. For example, see Farah and Lewis, Somalia: The Roots of Reconciliation; Bradbury, Becoming Somaliland.
65. For example,David Bloomfield et al. (eds), Reconciliation After Violent Conflict: A handbook (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm, 2003).
66. For example, in relation to Zimbabwe, ibid., p. 36.
67. David Mendeloff, 'Truth-seeking, truth-telling, and postconflict peacebuilding: Curb the enthusiasm?', International Studies Review 6 (2004), pp. 355-80.
68. There is considerable debate within Somali circles about precisely this point, suggesting that those risks are indeed acknowledged.
69. Interview, Saleebaan 'Afqarshe', 21 August 2007.
70. Kimberly Marten, 'Warlordism in comparative perspective', International Security 31, 3 (2007), p. 43.