Chapter 13 Apraxia of speech

Handbook of Clinical Neurology

Volumn 88, Issue , 2008, Pages 269-285

  Ziegler, Wolfram ^a  

^a Entwicklungsgruppe Klinische Neuropsychologie   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

APRAXIA; ARTICLE; BRAIN; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DYSARTHRIA; HEMISPHERIC DOMINANCE; HISTORY; HUMAN; LINGUISTICS; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SPEECH;

APRAXIAS; BRAIN; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DYSARTHRIA; FUNCTIONAL LATERALITY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; PSYCHOLINGUISTICS; SPEECH;

EID: 67649371666     PISSN: 00729752     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0072-9752(07)88013-4     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Ackermann H., Hertrich I., Ziegler W., et al. Acquired dysfluencies following infarction of the left mesiofrontal cortex. Aphasiology 10 (1996) 409-417
2. Aichert I., and Ziegler W. Syllable frequency and syllable structure in apraxia of speech. Brain Lang 88 (2004) 148-159
3. Alajouanine T., and Lhermitte F. Les troubles des activités expressives du langage dans l'aphasie. Leurs relations avec les apraxies. Rev Neurol (Paris) 102 (1960) 604-629
4. Alajouanine T., Ombredane A., and Durand M. Le Syndrome de Désintégration Phonétique dans l'Aphasie (1939), Masson, Paris
5. Alcock K.J., Passingham R.E., Watkins K.E., et al. Oral dyspraxia in inherited speech and language impairment and acquired dysphasia. Brain Lang 75 (2000) 17-33
6. Alexander M.P. Chronic akinetic mutism after mesencephalic-diencephalic infarction: Remediated with dopaminergic medications. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 15 (2001) 151-156
7. Alexander M.P., Naeser M.A., and Palumbo C. Broca's area aphasias: Aphasia after lesions including the frontal operculum. Neurology 40 (1990) 353-361
8. Amunts K., Schleicher A., Bürgel U., et al. Broca's region revisited: Cytoarchitecture and intersubject variability. J Comp Neurol 412 (1999) 319-341
9. Andy O.J., and Bhatnagar S.C. Thalamic-induced stuttering (surgical observations). J Speech Hear Res 34 (1991) 796-800
10. Andy O.J., and Bhatnagar S.C. Stuttering acquired from subcortical pathologies and its alleviation from thalamic perturbation. Brain Lang 42 (1992) 385-401
11. Ardila A., and Lopez M.V. Severe stuttering associated with right-hemisphere lesion. Brain Lang 27 (1986) 239-246
12. Avila C., Gonzalez J., Parcet M.A., et al. Selective alteration of native, but not second language articulation in a patient with foreign accent syndrome. Neuroreport 15 (2004) 2267-2270
13. Baddeley A. Recent developments in working-memory. Curr Opin Neurobiol 8 (1998) 234-238
14. Bakker J.I., Apeldoorn S., and Metz L.M. Foreign accent syndrome in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Can J Neurol Sci 31 (2004) 271-272
15. Balasubramanian V., and Max L. Crossed apraxia of speech: A case report. Brain Cogn 55 (2004) 240-246
16. Balasubramanian V., Max L., Van Borsel J., et al. Acquired stuttering following right frontal and bilateral pontine lesion: A case study. Brain Cogn 53 (2003) 185-189
17. Ballard K.J., Granier J.P., and Robin D.A. Understanding the nature of apraxia of speech: Theory, analysis, and treatment. Aphasiology 14 (2000) 969-995
18. Bay E. Die corticale Dysarthrie und ihre Beziehungen zur sog. motorischen Aphasie. Dtsch Z Nervenheilkd 176 (1957) 553-594
19. Berg T. A structural account of phonological paraphasias. Brain Lang 94 (2005) 104-129
20. Bizzozero I., Costato D., Della Sala S., et al. Upper and lower face apraxia: Role of the right hemisphere. Brain 123 (2000) 2213-2230
21. Blank S.C., Bird H., Turkheimer F., et al. Speech production after stroke: The role of the right pars opercularis. Ann Neurol 54 (2003) 310-320
22. Blumstein S.E., Alexander M.P., Ryalls J.H., et al. On the nature of the foreign accent syndrome: A case study. Brain Lang 31 (1987) 215-244
23. Bragoni M., Altieri M., Di P., et al. Bromocriptine and speech therapy in non-fluent chronic aphasia after stroke. Neurol Sci 21 (2000) 19-22
24. Brendel B, Ziegler W (in press). Effectiveness of Metrical Pacing in the Treatment of Apraxia of Speech. Aphasiology
25. Broca P. Remarques sur le siège de la faculté du langage articulé; suives d'une observation d'aphémie. Bull Assoc Anat (Nancy) 6 (1861) 330-357
26. Broca P. Sur le siège de la faculté du langage articulé. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 6 (1865) 377-393
27. Broussolle E., Bakchine S., Tommasi M., et al. Slowly progressive anarthria with late anterior opercular syndrome-a variant form of frontal cortical atrophy syndromes. J Neurol Sci 144 (1996) 44-58
28. Carluer L., Marie R.M., Lambert J., et al. Acquired and persistent stuttering as the main symptom of striatal infarction. Mov Disord 15 (2000) 343-346
29. Castro-Caldas A., Petersson K.M., Reis A., et al. The illiterate brain-learning to read and write during childhood influences the functional-organization of the adult brain. Brain 121 (1998) 1053-1063
30. Cheung H., Chen H.-C., Lai C.Y., et al. The development of phonological awareness: Effects of spoken language experience and orthography. Cognition 81 (2001) 227-241
31. Cholin J., Levelt W.J., and Schiller N.O. Effects of syllable frequency in speech production. Cognition 99 (2006) 205-235
32. Choudhari K.A. Subarachnoid haemorrhage and akinetic mutism. Br J Neurosurg 18 (2004) 253-258
33. Christoph D.H., Freitas G., Santos D., et al. Different perceived foreign accents in one patient after prerolandic hematoma. European neurology 52 (2004) 198-201
34. Chung S.J., Im J.H., Lee J.H., et al. Stuttering and gait disturbance after supplementary motor area seizure. Mov Disord 19 (2004) 1106-1109
35. Ciabarra A.M., Elkind M.S., Roberts J.K., et al. Subcortical infarction resulting in acquired stuttering. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69 (2000) 546-549
36. Code C. Models, theories and heuristics in apraxia of speech. Clin Linguist Phon 12 (1998) 47-65
37. Croot K. Diagnosis of AOS: Definition and criteria. Semin Speech Lang 23 (2002) 267-280
38. Darley F.L. Apraxia of speech: 107 years of terminological confusion (1968) Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the ASHA
39. Darley F.L., Aronson A.E., and Brown J.R. Motor Speech Disorders (1975), W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia
40. David A.S., and Bone I. Mutism following left hemisphere infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47 (1984) 1342-1344
41. Dejerine M.J. Contribution à l'étude de l'aphasie motrice sous-corticale et de la localisation cérébrale des centres laryngés (muscles phonateurs). Compte Rendu des Séances de la Société de Biologie 43 (1891) 155-162
42. Delreux V., Partz M., and Callewaert A. Aphasie croisée chez un droitier. Rev Neurol (Paris) 145 (1989) 725-728
43. Draganski B., Gaser C., Busch V., et al. Neuroplasticity: Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature 427 (2004) 311-312
44. Dronkers N. A new brain region for coordinating speech articulation. Nature 384 (1996) 159-161
45. Dronkers N., and Ogar J. Brain areas involved in speech production. Brain 127 (2004) 1461-1462
46. Duffau H., Bauchet L., Lehéricy S., et al. Functional compensation of the left dominant insula for language. Neuroreport 12 (2001) 2159-2163
47. Elbert T., Pantev C., Wienbruch C., et al. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 270 (1995) 305-307
48. Ellis A.W., Miller D., and Sin G. Wernicke's aphasia and normal language processing: A case study in cognitive neuropsychology. Cognition 15 (1983) 111-144
49. Fitch W.T. The evolution of speech: A comparative review. Trends Cogn Sci 4 (2000) 258-267
50. Fleet W.S., and Heilman K.M. Acquired stuttering from a right hemisphere lesion in a right-hander. Neurology 35 (1985) 1343-1346
51. Fridriksson J., Ryalls J., Rorden C., et al. Brain damage and cortical compensation in foreign accent syndrome. Neurocase 11 (2005) 319-324
52. Graff-Radford N.R., Cooper W.E., Colsher P.L., et al. An unlearned foreign 'accent' in a patient with aphasia. Brain Lang 28 (1986) 86-94
53. Grant A.C., Biousse V., Cook A.A., et al. Stroke-associated stuttering. Arch Neurol 56 (1999) 624-627
54. Groenen P., Maassen B., Crul T., et al. The specific relation between perception and production errors for place of articulation in developmental apraxia of speech. J Speech Hear Res 39 (1996) 468-482
55. Groswasser Z., Korn C., Groswasser-Reider I., et al. Mutism associated with buccofacial apraxia and bihemispheric lesions. Brain Lang 34 (1988) 157-168
56. Guenther F.H., Hampson M., and Johnson D. A theoretical investigation of reference frames for the planning of speech movements. Psychol Rev 105 (1998) 611-633
57. Gupta S.R., Mlcoch A.G., Scolaro C., et al. Bromocriptine treatment of nonfluent aphasia. Neurology 45 (1995) 2170-2173
58. Gurd J.M., Coleman J.S., Costello A., et al. Organic or functional? A new case of foreign accent syndrome. Cortex 37 (2001) 715-718
59. Hall D.A., Anderson C.A., Filley C.M., et al. A French accent after corpus callosum infarct. Neurology 60 (2003) 1551-1552
60. Hamano T., Hiraki S., Kawamura Y., et al. Acquired stuttering secondary to callosal infarction. Neurology 64 (2005) 1092-1093
61. Hecaen H., and Consoli S. Analyse des troubles du langage au cours des lesions de l'aire de Broca. Neuropsychologia 11 (1973) 377-388
62. Helm N.A., Butler R.B., and Benson D.F. Acquired stuttering. Neurology 28 (1978) 1159-1165
63. Helm-Estabrooks N. Diagnosis and management of neurogenic stuttering in adults. In: St Louis K.O. (Ed). The Atypical Stutterer. Principles and Practices of Rehabilitation (1986), Academic Press, Orlando 193-217
64. Hertrich I., Ackermann H., Ziegler W., et al. Speech iterations in Parkinsonism: A case study. Aphasiology 7 (1993) 395-406
65. Hickok G., Erhard P., Kassubek J., et al. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of the role of left posterior superior temporal gyrus in speech production: Implications for the explanation of conduction aphasia. Neurosci Lett 287 (2000) 156-160
66. Hickok G., and Poeppel D. Dorsal and ventral streams: A framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition 92 (2004) 67-99
67. Hillis A.E., Work M., Barker P.B., et al. Re-examining the brain regions crucial for orchestrating speech articulation. Brain 127 (2004) 1479-1487
68. Hoole P., Schröter-Morasch H., and Ziegler W. Patterns of laryngeal apraxia in two patients with Broca's aphasia. Clin Linguist Phon 11 (1997) 429-442
69. Horwitz S.J. Neurological findings in developmental verbal apraxia. Semin Speech Lang 5 (1984) 111-118
70. Ingram J.C.L., McCormack P.F., and Kennedy M. Phonetic analysis of a case of foreign accent syndrome. J Phonetics 20 (1992) 457-474
71. Kaplan E., Goodglass H., and Weintraub S. The Boston Naming Test (1983), Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia
72. Karni A., Meyer G., Jezzard P., et al. Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature 377 (1995) 155-158
73. Kertesz A. Aphasia. In: Frederiks J. (Ed). Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Clinical Neuropsychology Vol 1 (1985), Elsevier, Amsterdam 287-331 (45)
74. Kramer J.H., Delis D.C., and Nakada T. Buccofacial apraxia without aphasia due to a right parietal lesion. Ann Neurol 18 (1985) 512-514
75. Kuhl D.E., and Meltzoff A.N. Infant vocalizations in response to speech: Vocal imitation and developmental change. J Acoust Soc Am 100 (1996) 2425-2438
76. Kumabe T., Nakasato N., Suzuki K., et al. Two-staged resection of a left frontal astrocytoma involving the operculum and insula using intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring-case-report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 38 (1998) 503-507
77. Kumral E., Bayulkem G., Evyapan D., et al. Spectrum of anterior cerebral artery territory infarction: Clinical and MRI findings. Eur J Neurol 9 (2002) 615-624
78. Kuriki S., Mori T., and Hirata Y. Motor planning centre for speech articulation in the normal human brain. Neuroreport 10 (1999) 765-769
79. Kurowski K.M., Blumstein S.E., and Alexander M.P. The foreign accent syndrome: A reconsideration. Brain Lang 54 (1996) 1-25
80. Kushner M., Reivich M., Alavi A., et al. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in aphemia: A case report. Brain Lang 31 (1987) 201-214
81. Lecours A.R., and Lhermitte F. The 'pure form' of the phonetic disintegration syndrome (pure anarthria): Anatomo-clinical report of a historical case. Brain Lang 3 (1976) 88-113
82. LeRoux P.D., Berger M.S., Haglund M.M., et al. Resection of intrinsic tumors from nondominant face motor cortex using stimulation mapping: Report of two cases. Surg Neurol 36 (1991) 44-48
83. Levelt W.J.M. The genetic perspective in psycholinguistics or where do spoken words come from. J Psycholinguist Res 27 (1998) 167-180
84. Levelt W.J.M. Producing spoken language: A blueprint of the speaker. In: Brown C.M., and Hagoort P. (Eds). The Neurocognition of Language (2000), University Press, Oxford 83-122
85. Levelt W.J.M., Roelofs A., and Meyer A.S. A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behav Brain Sci 22 (1999) 1-38
86. Liberman A.M., and Whalen D.H. On the relation of speech to language. Trends Cogn Sci 4 (2000) 187-196
87. Lichtheim L. Ueber Aphasie. Aus der medicinischen Linik in Bern. Dtsch Arch Klin Med 36 (1885) 204-268
88. Liepmann H. Das Krankheitsbild der Apraxie ('motorischen Asymbolie') auf Grund eines Falles von einseitiger Apraxie (II). Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol VIII (1900) 102-132
89. Liepmann H. Zwei Fälle von Zerstörung der unteren linken Stirnwindung. Psychol Neurol IX (1907) 279-289
90. Liepmann H. Motorische Aphasie und Apraxie. Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol XXXIV (1913) 485-494
91. Lippert-Gruener M., Weinert U., Greisbach T., et al. Foreign accent syndrome following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 19 (2005) 955-958
92. Loureiro C.S., Braga L.W., Souza L.N., et al. Degree of illiteracy and phonological and metaphonological skills in unschooled adults. Brain Lang 89 (2004) 499-502
93. Ludlow C.L., Rosenberg J., Salazar A., et al. Site of penetrating brain lesions causing chronic acquired stuttering. Ann Neurol 22 (1987) 60-66
94. Maassen B. Issues contrasting adult acquired versus developmental apraxia of speech. Semin Speech Lang 23 (2002) 257-266
95. MacDermot K.D., Bonora E., Sykes N., et al. Identification of FOXP2 truncation as a novel cause of developmental speech and language deficits. American journal of human genetics 76 (2005) 1074-1080
96. Maeshima S., Truman G., Smith D.S., et al. Buccofacial apraxia and left cerebral haemorrhage. Brain Inj 11 (1997) 777-782
97. Mao C.-C., Coull B.M., Golper L., et al. Anterior operculum syndrome. Neurology 39 (1989) 1169-1172
98. McNeil M.R., Robin D.A., and Schmidt R.A. Apraxia of speech: Definition, differentiation and treatment. In: McNeil M.R. (Ed). Clinical Management of Sensorimotor Speech Disorders (1997), Thieme, New York, Stuttgart 311-344
99. Michel V., Burbaud P., Taillard J., et al. Stuttering or reflex seizure? A case report. Epileptic Disord 6 (2004) 181-185
100. Mohr J.P., Pessin M.S., Finkelstein S., et al. Broca aphasia: Pathologic and clinical. Neurology 28 (1978) 311-324
101. Monrad-Krohn G.H. Dysprosody or altered 'melody of language.'. Brain 70 (1947) 405-415
102. Moonis M., Swearer J.M., Blumstein S.E., et al. Foreign accent syndrome following a closed head injury: Perfusion deficit on single photon emission tomography with normal magnetic resonance imaging. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 9 (1996) 272-279
103. Moore C.A. Physiologic development of speech production. In: Maassen B., Kent R., Peters H., van Lieshout P., and Hulstijn W. (Eds). Speech Motor Control in Normal and Disordered Speech (2004), Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York 191-209
104. Mori E., Yamadori A., and Furumoto M. Left precentral gyrus and Broca's aphasia: A clinicopathologic study. Neurology 39 (1989) 51-54
105. Mouradian M.S., Paslawski T., and Shuaib A. Return of stuttering after stroke. Brain Lang 73 (2000) 120-123
106. Movsessian P. Neuropharmacology of theophylline induced stuttering: The role of dopamine, adenosine and GABA. Med Hypotheses 64 (2005) 290-297
107. Muellbacher W., Artner C., and Mamoli B. The role of the intact hemisphere in recovery of midline muscles after recent monohemispheric stroke. J Neurol 246 (1999) 250-256
108. Naeser M.A., Martin P.I., Nicholas M., et al. Improved picture naming in chronic aphasia after TMS to part of right Broca's area: An open protocol study. Brain Lang 93 (2005) 95-105
109. Naeser M.A., Palumbo C.L., Helm-Estabrooks N., et al. Severe nonfluency in aphasia. Role of the medial subcallosal fasciculus and other white matter pathways in recovery of spontaneous speech. Brain 112 (1989) 1-38
110. Nagao M., Takeda K., Komori T., et al. Apraxia of speech associated with an infarct in the precentral gyrus of the insula. Neuroradiology 41 (1999) 356-357
111. Nagaratnam N., Nagaratnam K., Ng K., et al. Akinetic mutism following stroke. J Clin Neurosci 11 (2004) 25-30
112. Nestor P.J., Graham N.L., Fryer T.D., et al. Progressive non-fluent aphasia is associated with hypometabolism centred on the left anterior insula. Brain 126 (2003) 2406-2418
113. Paulesu E., Frith C.D., and Frackowiak R.S.J. The neural correlates of the verbal component of working memory. Nature 362 (1993) 342-345
114. Peach R.K., and Tonkovich J.D. Phonemic characteristics of apraxia of speech resulting from subcortical hemorrhage. J Commun Disord 37 (2004) 77-90
115. Pellat J., Gentil M., Lyard G., et al. Aphemia after a penetrating brain wound: A case study. Brain Lang 40 (1991) 459-470
116. Perino M., Famularo G., and Tarroni P. Acquired transient stuttering during a migraine attack. Headache 40 (2000) 170-172
117. Petrides M., Cadoret G., and Mackey S. Orofacial somatomotor responses in the macaque monkey homologue of Broca's area. Nature 435 (2005) 1235-1238
118. Pick A. Über Änderungen des Sprachcharakters als Begleiterscheinung aphasischer Störungen. Z Gesamte Neurol Psychiatr 45 (1919) 230-241
119. Pineda D., and Ardila A. Lasting mutism with buccofacial apraxia. Aphasiology 6 (1992) 285-292
120. Price C.J., Winterburn D., Giraud A.L., et al. Cortical localisation of the visual and auditory word form areas: A reconsideration of the evidence. Brain Lang 86 (2003) 272-286
121. Reeves R.R., and Norton J.W. Foreign accent-like syndrome during psychotic exacerbations. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 14 (2001) 135-138
122. Riecker A., Ackermann H., Wildgruber D., et al. Opposite hemispheric lateralization effects during speaking and singing at motor cortex, insula and cerebellum. Neuroreport 11 (2000) 1997-2000
123. Rochon E., Caplan D., and Waters G. Short-term memory processes in patients with apraxia of speech: Implications for the nature and structure of the auditory verbal short-term memory system. J Neurolinguistics 5 (1990) 237-264
124. Romani C., and Calabrese A. Syllabic constraints in the phonological errors of an aphasic patient. Brain Lang 64 (1998) 83-121
125. Roth E.J., Fink K., Cherney L.R., et al. Reversion to a previously learned foreign accent after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78 (1997) 550-552
126. Ruff R.L., and Arbit E. Aphemia resulting from a left frontal hematoma. Neurology 31 (1981) 353-356
127. Sakurai Y., Murayama S., Fukusako Y., et al. Progressive aphemia in a patient with Pick's disease: A neuropsychological and anatomic study. J Neurol Sci 159 (1998) 156-161
128. Schiff H.B., Alexander M.P., Naeser M.A., et al. Aphemia. Clinical-anatomic correlations. Arch Neurol 40 (1983) 720-727
129. Shriberg L.D., Aram D.M., and Kwiatkowski J. Developmental apraxia of speech: I. Descriptive and theoretical perspectives. J Speech Lang Hear Res 40 (1997) 273-285
130. Shuren J.E., Schefft B.K., Yeh H.-S., et al. Repetition and the arcuate fasciculus. J Neurol 242 (1995) 596-598
131. Soroker N., Bar-Israel Y., Schechter I., et al. Stuttering as a manifestation of right-hemispheric subcortical stroke. European neurology 30 (1990) 268-270
132. Takayama Y., Sugishita M., Kido T., et al. A case of foreign accent syndrome without aphasia caused by a lesion of the left precentral gyrus. Neurology 43 (1993) 1361-1363
133. Tanji K., Suzuki K., Yamadori A., et al. Pure anarthria with predominantly sequencing errors in phoneme articulation: A case report. Cortex 37 (2001) 671-678
134. Tonkonogy J., and Goodglass H. Language function, foot of the third frontal gyrus, and rolandic operculum. Arch Neurol 38 (1981) 486-490
135. Turgut N., Utku U., and Balci K. A case of acquired stuttering resulting from left parietal infarction. Acta Neurol Scand 105 (2002) 408-410
136. Ungerleider L.G., Doyon J., and Karni A. Imaging brain plasticity during motor skill learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 78 (2002) 553-564
137. Urban P.P., Wicht S., Vukurevic G., et al. Dysarthria in acute ischemic stroke. Lesion topography, clinicoradiologic correlation, and etiology. Neurology 56 (2001) 1021-1027
138. Van Borsel J., van der Made S., and Santens P. Thalamic stuttering: A distinct clinical entity?. Brain Lang 85 (2003) 185-189
139. Vargha-Khadem F., Gadian D.G., Copp A., et al. FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language. Nat Rev Neurosci 6 (2005) 131-138
140. Walker-Batson D., Curtis S., Natarajan R., et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the use of amphetamine in the treatment of aphasia. Stroke 32 (2001) 2093-2098
141. Wambaugh J.L. A summary of treatments for apraxia of speech and review of replicated approaches. Semin Speech Lang 23 (2002) 293-308
142. Waters G.S., Rochon E., and Caplan D. The role of high-level speech planning in rehearsal: Evidence from patients with apraxia of speech. J Mem Lang 31 (1992) 54-73
143. Watkins K., and Paus T. Modulation of motor excitability during speech perception: The role of Broca's area. J Cogn Neurosci 16 (2004) 978-987
144. West C., Hesketh A., Vail A., et al. Interventions for apraxia of speech following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2005) Issue 4. Art. No.: CD004298. DOI: 10.1002 /14651858. CD004298.pub2
145. Whiteside S.P., and Varley R.A. A reconceptualization of apraxia of speech: A synthesis of evidence. Cortex 34 (1998) 221-231
146. Wise R.J.S., Greene J., Buchel C., et al. Brain-regions involved in articulation. Lancet 353 (1999) 1057-1061
147. World Health Organization. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health-ICF (2005). http://www3.who.int/icf/
148. Ziegler W. Phonetic realization of phonological contrast in aphasic patients. In: Ryalls J.H. (Ed). Phonetic Approaches to Speech Production in Aphasia and Related Disorders (1987), College Hill Press, Boston 163-179
149. Ziegler W. Speech motor control is task-specific. Evidence from dysarthria and apraxia of speech. Aphasiology 17 (2003) 3-36
150. Ziegler W. A nonlinear model of word length effects in apraxia of speech. Cogn Neuropsychol 22 (2005) 603-623
151. Ziegler W. Distinctions between speech and nonspeech motor control. A neurophonetic view. In: Tabain M., and Harrington J. (Eds). Speech Production (2006), Psychology Press, Oxford
152. Ziegler W., and Cramon D. Timing deficits in apraxia of speech. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 236 (1986) 44-49
153. Ziegler W., Kilian B., and Deger K. The role of the left mesial frontal cortex in fluent speech: Evidence from a case of left supplementary motor area hemorrhage. Neuropsychologia 35 (1997) 1197-1208