Scarcity and resentment: Economic sources of xenophobia in the GDR, 1971-1989

Central European History

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 683-720

  Zatlin, Jonathan R ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 67549137743     PISSN: 00089389     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0008938907001082     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Georg Simmel, "Exkurs über den Fremden," in Soziologie. Untersuchungen über die Formen der Vetgesellschaftung. Georg Simmel Gesamtausgabe, ed. Otthein Rammstedt, vol. 11 (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1992), 765
2. Burkhard Olschowsky, "Einvernehmen und Konflikt. DDR und Polen in den 70er und 80er Jahren," Dialog 57 (2001): 56
3. Robert Miles, "Bedeutungskonstitution und der Begriff des Rassismus," in Theorien über den Rassismus, ed. Nora Raethzel (Hamburg: Argument Verlag, 2000), 17-33
4. It is worth noting, moreover, that these arguments function as ideologies, inasmuch as they offer causal explanations for empirical events. See, for example, Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness. The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Pantheon, 1998)
5. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather. Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995)
6. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire. Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London and New York: Roudedge, 1995)
7. The history of the so-called Sachsengänger, or agricultural migrant workers in eastern Germany, has been neglected in comparison to the history of Polish miners in western Germany. See Ulrich Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerbeschäftigung in Deutschland 1880 bis 1980. Saisonarbeiter, Zwangsarbeiter, Gastarbeiter (Berlin and Bonn: Dietz, 1986)
8. Christoph Kleßmann, Polnische Bergarbeiter im Ruhr-gebiet. 1870-1945. Soziale Integration und nationale Subkultur einer Minderheit in der deutschen Industriegesellschaft (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978)
9. Kleßmann, "Integration und Subkultur nationaler Minderheiten. Das Beispiel der 'Ruhrpolen' 1870-1939," in Auswanderer-Wan-derarbeiter- Gastarbeiter. Bevölkerung, Arbeitsmarkt und Wanderung in Deutschland seit der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Klaus J. Bade (Ostfildern: Scripta Mercaturae, 1984), vol. 2
10. John Kulczycki, The Foreign Worker and the Crraü Labor Movement: Xenophobia and Solidarity in the Coal Fields of the Ruhr, 1871-1914 (Oxford and Providence, RI: Berg, 1994)
11. Max Weber, "Der Nationalstaat und die Volkswirtschaft," in Max Weber, Gesammelte Politische Schriften (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1971), 9. See also Weber, "Die ländliche Arbeitsverfassung," in Max Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1924), 444-469
12. Although Weber himself later renounced biological racism as a legitimate category of analysis, his anti-Polish views, especially with regard to the agrarian question, remained consistent. For more on the development of Weber's thinking, see Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Max Weber und die deutsche Politik (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1974), 40-60
13. Fritz Ringer, Max Weber: An Intellectual Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 42-54
14. Keith Tribe, "Prussian Agriculture-German Politics: Max Weber 1892-7," in Economy and Society 11 (1983): 181-226
15. Andrew Zimmerman, "Decolonizing Weber," in Postcolonial Studies, 9 (2006): 53-79
16. See also the plethora of German dissertations on migrant labor that echo Weber's arguments, including Ferdinand Godel, Der Arbeitsvertrag der Landarbeiter (Ph.D. diss., University of Leipzig, 1910)
17. and Anton Knoke, Ausländische Wanderarbeiter in Deutschland (Ph.D. diss, University of Leipzig, 1911)
18. William W. Hagen, Germans, Poles, and Jem. The Nationality Conflict in the Prussian East, 1772-1914 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 29 and 52
19. Hubert Orlowski, "Polnische Wirtschaft." Zum deutschen Polendiskurs der Neuzeit (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1996), 7-46
20. For an example of contemporary German arrogance toward Poles, see Der Spiegel 25, June 18, 2007, "Die Schlacht der Zwillinge," 24-38, which fails to mention several opinion polls carried out during 2007 suggesting that substantial numbers of Germans continue to view Poles as criminals, including one conducted by its competitor, Der.Stern
21. Hagen, Germans, Poles, and Jews, 52; Ritchie Robertson, "Zum deutschen Slawenbild von Herder bis Musil," in Das Eigene und das Fremde. Festschrift für Urs Bitterli, ed. Urs Faes and Béatrice Ziegler (Zurich: NZZ, 2000), 116-144
22. Orlowski, "Polnische Wirtschaft," 47-80. Ironically, the East German institute for acculturating foreigners was named for Herder
23. Anti-Polish sentiment was often combined with anti-Semitism. See, for example, the bitterly racialized categories in Hermann Schiff, Schief-Levinche mit seiner Kalle oder Polnische Wirtschaft (1848; rpt. ed., Hamburg and Berlin: Hoffmann & Kampe, 1919). See also Orlowski, "Polnische Wirtschaft," 21-22
24. Klaus Zernack, "Negative Polenpolitik als Grundlage deutsch-russischer Diplomatic in der Mächtepolitik des 18. Jahrhunderts," in Ruβland und Deutschland. Georg von Ranch zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Uwe Liszkowski (Stuttgart: E. Klett, 1974). On the legal treatment of Poles in Imperial Germany, see Dieter Gosewinkel, Einbürgern and Ausschliessen. Die Nationalisierung der Staatsangehörigkeit vom Deutschen Bund bis zur Bnndcsrepublik Deutschland (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001)
25. Von Seeckt to Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzow, September 11, 1922, in Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, Mißtrauische Nachbam. Deutsche Ostpolilik 1919/1970. Dokumente und Analyse (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1970), 33
26. For more on Nazi policy toward Poland, see Martin Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik 1939-1945 (Frankfurt-am-Main and Hamburg: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1965)
27. Michael Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards: A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988)
28. John Connelly, "Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice," in Central European History 32 (1999), 1-33
29. Otto Kredel, Deutsche Ordnung und Polnische Wirtschaft (Berlin: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, Abt. Inland, 1940), l and 30
30. After the Polish communist party's imposition of martial law in 1981, for example, a popular joke represented East Germans as naïve victims of Polish indolence and communist pressure to help the Poles during the crisis. "A train full of donations made out of solidarity by the GDR was sent back by Poland," the joke runs. "What was in the train? Work clothes." See Reinhard Wagner, DDR-Witze. Walter schützt vor Torheit nicht, Erich währt am längsten (Berlin: Dietz, 1995), 100. For an example of earlier-and failed-attempts by the SED to redefine "Polish economy" in positive terms, see "Die Polen und wir," Deutschlands Stimme, Nov. 25, 1949, repinted in Der Funktionär 2: 12 (December 1949), 281
31. The total number of German refugees from Eastern Europe lay between eleven and twelve million. See Michael Schwartz, "Vertrieben in die Arbeiterschaft. 'Umsiedler' als 'Arbeiter' in der SBZ/DDR 1945-1952," in Arbeiter in da SBZ-DDR, ed. Peter Hübner und Klaus Tenfelde (Essen: Klartext, 1999), 82
32. Philipp Ther, Deutsche und polnische Vertriebene. Gesellschaft und Vertriebe-nenpolitik in der SBZ/DDR und in Polen 1945-1956 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998)
33. Krzysztof Ruchniewicz, "Sowjetblock. DDR und Polen 1949-1970," Dialog 57 (2001): 48-51. For an older but insightful discussion of the post-1945 territorial settlement, see Hugh Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (New York: Praeger, 1956), 150-7, and 360-8
34. Neues Deutschland, September 20, 1957. The onset of détente, however, fundamentally altered this alliance of strategic necessity by significandy reducing the West German threat to the postwar territorial settlement. For more on the foreign policies of the U.S.S.R., Poland, and the GDR, see Sheldon Anderson, A Cold War in the Soviet Bloc: Polish-East German Relations, 1945-1962 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001)
35. Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (New York: Random House, 1993)
36. Daniel Küchenmeister, Detlev Nakath, and Gerd-Rüdiger Stephan, eds., Abgegrenzte Weltoffenheit. Zur Auβen- und Deutschlandpolitik der DDR (Potsdam: Brandenburger Verein für Politische Bildung "Rosa Luxemburg," 1999)
37. Protokoil dcr Verhandlungen des V̈I. Parteitages, vol. 1,201. A minute later Gierek would mention the Görlitzer Treaty, which had formally established the Oder-Neiße line as the new border
38. SAPMO-BA, DY30, 2897, Heinz Klempke, Abteilung Sozialistische Wirtschaftsführung, Vermerk, November 2, 1972, 119
39. SAPMO-BA, DY6, Vorläufige 3972/1, Sewald, Kreissekretär des Kreisauschusses Calau, "Informationsbericht Fragen, Meinungen und die in der Bevölkerung diskutierten Probleme," November 3, 1977, 2
40. SAPMO-BA, DY30, IV 2/2.039/204, Abteilung für Sicherheitsfragen, "Information zu ausgewählten Problemen der Zollkriminalität, " September 29, 1988, 142
41. SAPMO-BA, DY30, IV 2/2.039/83, Sekretariat, "Festlegung der Preise fur den Aufkauf von Gold und Silber," January 27, 1987, 10-11
42. That is, broad structural similarities among planned economies were mediated by the "embed-dedness" of markets in local culture, leading to "varieties of socialism." See Mark Granovetter, "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness," The American Journal of Sociology 91, no. 3 (November, 1985): 481-510
43. Waltraud Böhme, et al., eds., Kleines Politisches Wortcrbuch (East Berlin: Dietz, 1988), 802
44. for example, Neues Deutschhnd carried at least one story a day deploring the toleration of former fascists or neo-Nazis in the Federal Republic; Neues Daitschland, August 9-16, 1976
45. In addition, the press sought to link West Germany to Nazism by representing it as supportive of racist regimes such as apartheid-era South Africa; see, for example, Deutsches Rundfunk-archiv (DRA), E028-00-06/0004012, Schnitzler, "Das Schwarze Kanal," March 19, 1984, 4
46. Jürgen Danyel, "Spätfolgen? Der ostdeutsche Rechtsextremismus als Hypothek der DDR-Vergangenheitspolitik und Erinnerungskultur," in Fremde und Fremd-Scin in der DDR. Zu historischen Ursachen der Fremdcnfeindlichkeit in Ostdeutschland, ed. Jan C. Behrends, Dennis Kuck, and Patrice G. Poutrus (Berlin: Metropol, 2003), 37-40
47. Saunders, "Ostdeutschland." On the role of anti-fascism in consolidating communist rule, see Jeffrey Herf, Divided Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997)
48. Sigrid Meuschel, Legitimation und Partcihcrrschaft in der DDR (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1992), 29-40
49. John C. Torpey, Intellectuals, Socialism, and Dissent: The East German Opposition and Its Legacy (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1995)
50. Manfred Wilke, "Der instrumentelle Antifaschismus der SED und die Legitimation der DDR," in Enquete-Kommission "Aufarbeitung von Geschichte und Folgen der SED-Diktatur in Deutsch-land," Öffcntlichc Anhömng zum Thema "Antifaschismus und Rcchtsradikalismus in der SBZ/DDR," (Bonn: Deutscher Bundestag, 1993)
51. For an evaluation of the SED's construction of the GDR as the embodiment of antifascism in relation to other communist parties, see Vladimir Tismaneanu, Reinventing Politics: Eastern Europe from Stalin to Havel (New York: Free Press, 1992), 210
52. See, for example, Jan C. Behrends, Dennis Kuck, and Patrice G. Poutrus, "Historische Ursachen der Fremdenfeindlichkeit in den Neuen Bundeslandern," http://www.zzf-pdm.de/papers/fremde/ thesp.html; Marianne Krüger-Potratz, Annette Kaminsky, and Werner Winter, "Vö lkerfreundschaft und Internationale Solidarität," in Freundschaft! Die Volksbildung der DDR in ausgewählten Kapitehi, ed. Tilman Grammes (Berlin: Basisdruck, 1996)
53. Marianne Krüger-Potratz, Anderssein gab es nicht. Aus-länder und Minderheiten in der DDR (Münster and New York: Waxmann, 1991)
54. Sandra Gruner-Domić, "Zur Geschichte der Arbeitskrä ftemigration in die DDR. Die bilateralen Verträge zur Beschaftigung aus̈landischer Arbeiter (1961 - 1989),"
55. Internationale wissenschafiliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung 32, no. 2 (1996)
56. Behrends, et al., "Historische Ursachen;" Saunders, "Ostdeutschland." Heinz Lynen von Berg argues that youth culture in the GDR moved to the right beginning in the early 1980s as a reaction against the authoritarianism of the SED
57. Heinz Lynen von Berg, "Die 'streitbare Demokratie' und ihr Rechtsextremismus. Die Entwicklung des Rechtsextremismus seit 1949 und politische Reaktio-nen," in Demokratie in Gefahr? Zum Zustand der deutschen Republik, ed. Rainer Schneider-Wilkes (Münster: Westfalishes Dampfboot, 1997), 435
58. Oliver von Wrochem, "Die sowjetischen 'Besatzer.' Konstruktionen des Fremden in der lebens-geschichtlichen Erinnerung," and Jan C. Behrends, "Sowjetische 'Freunde' und fremde 'Russen.' Deutsch-Sowjetische Freundschaft zwischen Ideologic und Alltag (1949-1990), in Fremde und Frcmd-Scin, Behrends, et al
59. Dagmar Henke, "Fremde Nähe-Nahe Fremde. Ein Beitrag zur Auslanderarbeit der Kirchen in der ehemaligen DDR," Berliner Thec ologische Zeitschrift 9 (1992): 121, cited in Patrice G. Poutrus
60. Mit strengem Blick. Die sogenannten Polit. Emigranten in den Berichten des MfS," in Fremde und Fremd-Sein, Behrends, et al., 218
61. Lee McGowan, The Radical Right in Germany, 1870 to the Present (London: Longman, 2002), 173-206
62. Moreover, West German civil servants and politicians continue to confuse citizenship and race. As late as 1992
63. for example, refugees applying for German passports were required to provide information about the form of their nose; tages-zeitung (taz), December 31, 1992
64. For a highly original analysis of the competition between universalist and particularist values on the German left, see Andrei S. Markovits, "The European, German, and American Left: Evolution and Transformation," in Germany and America: Essays in Honor of Gerald R. Kleinfeld, ed. Wolfgang-Uwe Friedrich (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001)
65. Cited in Herbert, Geschichte dcr Auslädndcrbeschäftigimg, 69. In addition, many German workers and their leaders approved of the rhetorical and administrative harassment meted out against Poles by the Prussian government, which culminated in the expulsions of Polish workers in 1907 andthe ban on the use of Polish in public in 1908
66. KleBßmann, Polnische Bcrgarbcitcr im Ruhrgebiet, 62-70, 110-125, and 145-156
67. KleBßmann, "Integration und Subkultur nationaler Minderheiten," 68-71, and 74-6
68. See, for example, Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1991)
69. Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1975). My thanks to Scott Tang for acquainting me with this body of literature
70. See, for example, Christian Habbe, "Sie sind wie Ratten und Wanzen. Aus Bürgerschmähschrif-ten an deutsche Politiker," in Ausländer. Die rerfcmten Gäste, ed. Christian Habbe (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1983)
71. Wesley D. Chapin emphasizes German complaints that "foreigners took jobs from Germans"
72. Wesley D. Chapin, Germany for the Germans? The Political Effects of International Migration (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997), 57
73. see Lynen von Berg, "Die 'streitbare Demokratie' und ihr Rechtsextremismus"; Ingo Hasselbach, Führer-Ex (New York: Random House, 1996); and McGowan, The Radical Right in Germany
74. Herbert Spaich, "Yussuf, AH und 'die deutsche Kultur.' Der neue FremdenhaBß-seine Urheber, seine Vorgeschichte," in Habbe, Ausländer
75. A recent example is Roger D. Petersen, Understanding Ethnic l^olence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)
76. which leaps over post-war communist rule without comment. An important exception to this model is Panikos Panayi's valuable overview, An Ethnic History of Europe since 1945: Nations, States, and Minorities (Harlow, UK: Longman, 2000)
77. An exception is Annette Kaminsky, who rightly criticizes the SED for using the shortages of consumer goods during the 1980s to stoke xenophobic feelings against Poles in particular; Annette Kaminsky, Wohlstand, Schonheit, Chick. Kleine Kotisumgeschichte der DDR (Munich: Beck, 2001), 153-4
78. These and the following comments are taken from SAPMO-BA, DY30,2897
79. Jomthan R. Zatlin, The Currency of Socialism: Money and Political Culture in East Germany (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007)
80. The SED's criticism of Poles also had antecedents in the party's earlier attacks on West Germans and Allied soldiers for taking advantage of the low cost of East German goods; Erika M. Hoernung, Zwischen den Fronten. Berliner Grenzgänger mid Grc̈zhSndler 1948-1961 (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna: Bohlau, 1992)
81. Katherine Helena Pence, From Rations to Fashions: The Gendered Politics of East and West German Consumption, 1945-1961 (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan)
82. Worried that the Poles might export political unrest, the SED responded to Polish strikes in October 1980 by restricting privatetravel, which reduced Polish tourism by a third. After the declaration of martial law in December 1981, the SED suspended all travel between the two allies. Starting in 1982, Poles could only visit the GDR if they produced an invitation from an East German citizen, which had to pass muster with the local police. For more on the Solidarity movement, see Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity (New York: Scribner, 1984)
83. Pierre Buhler, Histoiri de la Pologne Communiste. Aulopsic d'une imposture (Paris: Karthala, 1997), 542-655
84. Jan Kubik, the Power of Symbols against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994)
85. BßArchBßß, DEI, 56285, "Arbeitsniederschrift Über eine Beratung beim Generalsekretar des ZK der SED, Genossen Erich Honecker, zu den Materialien des Entwurfs der staatlichen Aufgaben 1989," September 6, 1988, 21-6
86. SAPMO-BA, DY30, Vorläufige SED 41792, Abteilung Parteiorgane des ZK, "Information zu einigen Fragen der Versorgung der Bevölkerung," November 14, 1988, 3-4
87. Hauptverwaltung Abteilung Rechenzentrum, "Information zur Ausfuhr von Schuhwaren durch Bürger der UdSSR," November 18, 1989, 200
88. Tina Campt, Other Germans: Black Germans and the Politics of Race, Gender, and Memory in the Third Reich (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003)
89. Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998)
90. Pascal Grosse, Kolonismus, Etigenik mid b̈rgerliche Gescllschafi in Dcntschland 1850-1918 (Frankfurt am Main and New York: Campus, 2000)
91. Uta Poiger, "Imperialism and Empire in Twentieth Century Germany," History and Memory 17, vol. 1-2, (2005), 117-43
92. Böhme, Kleines Politisches Wdrterbuch, 802
93. Willi Ehlert, et al., eds., Worterbuch der Ökonomie Sozialbm̈s (Berlin: Dietz, 1984), 430. For an earlier formulation of the GDR's anti-colonial stance and its link to labor costs, see Neues Deutschland, October, 17, 1957
94. Gegen Rassismus, Apartheid und Kolonialismus. Dokumente der DDR 1949-1977 (Berlin: Staatsverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 1978)
95. Alfred Babing, ed., Gegen Rassismus, Apartheid und Kolonialismus. Dokumente der DDR 1977-1982 (Berlin: Staatsverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 1983). The party also regularly aired programs devoted to revealing the link between ethnicity and class used by western corporations to depress wages; see, for example, DRA, E084-05-02-0003067, Heinz Grote, "Der Schwarze Kanal," April 15, 1974
96. Uta R̈chel, "⋯ auf deutsch soziaHstisch zu dc̈ken ⋯" Mosambikancr in der Sclmle der Frcimdscltaft (Magdeburg: Der Landesbeauftragte fur die Unterlagen des Staatssicherheits-dienstes der ehemaligen DDR, 2001), 8-10
97. Gruner-Domić, "Zur Geschichte der Arbeitskräftemigration in die DDR," 212 and 225
98. SAPMO-DA, DY30, IV 2/2.039/86, Protokolle Sekretariat, February 22, 1989, 48a
99. Kr̈ger-Potratz, Anderssein gab es nicht, 178
100. For a theoretical approach, see János Kornai, The Economics of Shortage (Amsterdam and New York: North-Holland Publishing, 1980). For the Soviet case
101. see Alec Nove, An Economic History of the U.S.S.R. (London: Penguin, 1989)
102. Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995)
103. For the GDR, see Phillip J. Bryson and Manfred Melzer, The End of the East German Economy: From Honecker to Reunification (New York: St. Martin's, 1991)
104. Holle Grunert, Beschäftigungssystcm und Arbcitsmarkt in der DDR (Opladen: Leske & Budrick, 1997)
105. Jeffrey Kopstein, The Politics of Economic Decline in East Germany. 1945-1989 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1997)
106. Zatlin, The Currency of Socialism
107. "Ergänzung zum Jahresprotokoll 1988," December 20, 1987; Kr̈ger-Potratz, Andersscin gab es nicht, 171
108. SAPMO-BA, DY30, Vorlaufige SED 41853, Inspektion Leichtindustrie, Komitee der ABI, "Bericht ̈ber die Kontrolle zur vertragsgerechten Bereitstellung und Qualität von StraBßenschuhen," June 14, 1988, 4
109. R̈chel, auf deutsch sozialistisch zn denken, 48-50
110. "Information zur Änderung von Zollbestimmungen der Volksrepublik Polen," June 1, 1988, 84
111. "Information zur weiteren Durchführung des Abkommens ̈ber den Postverkehr zwischen der DDR und der BRD," February 22, 1984, 21-2
112. "Information Über Ergebnisse bei der zollrechtlichen Bestimmung im Reiseverkehr an den Staatsgrenzen zur BRD und zu Berlin (West) im Jahre 1983," February 22, 1984, 7
113. Feige, Vietnamcsische Studenten und Arbeiter in der DDR, 44
114. Junge Welt, December 2-3, 1989
115. R̈chel, auf deutsch sozialistisch Zu deitken, chapters 3 and 4; the petitions in BßArchBß, DQ3, 1801 and 1804
116. DRA, E084, 05-02/0003463, Schnitzler, "Das Schwarze Kanl," March 1, 1982, 1