The haven of peace purged: Tackling the undesirable and unproductive poor in Dar es Salaam, ca.1950S-1980S

International Journal of African Historical Studies

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 119-151

  Burton, Andrew ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 67449146791     PISSN: 03617882     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. For recent overviews, see David M. Anderson and Richard Rathbone, "Urban Africa: Histories in the Making," in D.A. Anderson and R. Rathbone, eds., Africa's Urban Past (Oxford, U.K., 2000), 1-17
2. and Andrew Burton, "Urbanisation in Eastern Africa, c.1750-2000," in A. Burton, ed., The Urban Experience in Eastern Africa, c. 1750-2000 (Nairobi, 2002), 1-28
3. For class in urban Africa, see Frederick Cooper's important essay, "Urban Space, Industrial Time, and Wage Labor in Africa," in F. Cooper, ed., Struggle for the City (Beverley Hills, 1983)
4. and for a recent study on Dar es Salaam, Eileen Moyer, "In the Shadow of the Sheraton: Imagining Localities in Global Spaces in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2003)
5. For a wide-ranging critique of modernization theory that includes a chapter on Tanzania, see James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New York, 1998)
6. and for Dar es Salaam, Andrew Ivaska, "Negotiating Culture in a Cosmopolitan Capital: Urban Style and the Tanzanian State in Colonial and Postcolonial Dar es Salaam" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 2003)
7. For the example of Nairobi, see Andrew Hake, African Metropolis: Nairobi's Self-Help City (Brighton, U.K., 1977)
8. See e.g., the special edition of World Development (6-1978) edited by R. Bromley on "The Urban Informal Sector: Critical Perspectives"
9. and for Dar es Salaam, M.A. Bienefeld, "The Informal Sector and Peripheral Capitalism: The Case of Tanzania," IDS Bulletin 6, 3 (1975)
10. Keith Hart's original formulation of the informal sector, presented in 1970 though not published until 1973, did place more emphasis on its sociocultural aspects. "Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana," Journal of Modern African Studies 11 (1973), 61-89
11. For a good account of the political and ideological impact of the informal economy in the 1980s, a key period of transition, see Aili Mari Tripp, Changing the Rules: The Politics of Liberalization and the Urban Informal Economy in Tanzania (Berkeley, Calif., 1997)
12. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), 96
13. See James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance (New Haven, Conn., 1990)
14. See Burton, African Underclass, Introduction and Chapters 1 and 3
15. For a critique of modernism's simplifying tendencies, see Scott, Seeing Like a State (Chapters 3 and 4 of which are on urban planning); for the "enframing" of colonial Cairo (which was thereby rendered legible for state interventions)
16. see Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Berkeley, Calif., 1991)
17. and for the succession of idealized, largely unimplemented, "masterplans" for Dar es Salaam, see Allen Armstrong, "Colonial and Neo-Colonial Urban Planning: Three Generations of Master Plans for Dar es Salaam, Tanzania," Utafiti 8, 1 (1986), 43-66
18. See Burton, African Underclass, Part 3
19. R.E. Stren, Urban Inequality and Housing Policy in Tanzania (Berkeley, Calif., 1975), 23
20. Joe Lugalla, "Socialist Construction and the Urbanization Process in Tanzania (An Analysis of Urban Poverty and Polities)" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Bremen, 1990), 185
21. M. Bienefeld, "The Self-Employed of Urban Tanzania," (Economic Research Bureau Paper no. 75:11, University of Dar es Salaam, 1975)
22. Stren, Urban Inequality, 37
23. J.M.L. Kironde, "The Evolution of Land Use Structure in Dar es Salaam: A Study in the Effects of Land Policy" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Nairobi, 1994), 337
24. Lugalla, "Socialist Construction," 247-48
25. See also Kironde, "Land Use Structure," and John Campbell, "The World Bank Urban Shelter Projects in Tanzania: A Partnership in Development and Self-Reliance?," in Michael Hodd, ed., Tanzania after Nyerere (London, 1998), 143-54
26. ILO report on "Wages, Incomes and Prices Policy," Govt. Paper no. 3, 1967, p. 4
27. A. Brain, "A Political Economy of Urbanization in Tanzania" (Ph.D. thesis, University of British Colombia, 1979)
28. See Government of Tanzania, Survey of Employment and Earnings (Dar es Salaam, various years)
29. Kironde, "Evolution," 319-24
30. Brain, "Political Economy," 311-16
31. M. Bienefeld, "A Long-Term Housing Policy for Tanzania," ERB Paper 70.9, University of Dar es Salaam (1970), 11
32. Adolpho Mascarenhas "Urban Development in Dar es Salaam" (M.A. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966), 205
33. "The Impact of Nationhood on Dar es Salaam," East African Geographical Review, April 1967
34. Daily News (DN), 2 March 1973
35. For Lusaka, see Jaap Van Velsen, "Urban Squatters: Problem or Solution?" in David Parkin, Town and Country in Central and Eastern Africa (London, 1975), 307
36. D.R. Mutasingwa, "The History of Dar es Salaam - the Study of Magomeni" (B.A. History dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam (1978/9), 41-43
37. For the place of such rhetoric in Tanzanian nationalist thought, see Brennan, "Blood Enemies."
38. Nationalist, 21 October 1964, I and 5
39. Weekly News, 31 March 1967, 14
40. Tanganyika Standard (TS), 16 December 1970, 1
41. Julius Nyerere, The Arusha Declaration: Ten Years After (Dar es Salaam, 1977), 46
42. WN, 31 October 1967, 14
43. See Andrew Ivaska, "'Anti-Mini Militants Meet Modern Misses': Urban Style, Gender and the Politics of 'National Culture' in 1960s Dar es Salaam, Tanzania," Gender and History (2002), for a fuller account
44. DN, 11 January 1973, 1
45. DN, 17 March 1974, 4
46. E.g., DN, 18 April 1973, 3
47. DN 31 December 1970, 7
48. TS, 11 June 1970
49. DN, 29 January 1971, 6
50. See Andrew Burton, "Raw Youth, School-Leavers and the Emergence of Structural Unemployment in Late-Colonial Urban Tanganyika," JAH 47, 3 (2006), 63-387
51. DN, 14 April 1974
52. Armstrong, "Urban Control Campaigns," 30
53. See also A.M. Hayuma, "A Review and Assessment of the Contribution of Internal and Bilateral Aids to Urban Development Policies in Tanzania," Ekistics (1979)
54. Armstrong, "Urban Control Campaigns," 17
55. Robert Martin, Personal Freedom and the Law in Tanzania: A Study of Socialist State Administration (Nairobi, 1974), 104
56. Rodger Yeager, "Demography and Development Policy in Tanzania," Journal of Developing Areas 16 (1982), 502
57. E. Mwanjabala, "Implementing Nguvu Kazi: A Case Study of Dar es Salaam" (M.A. dissertation. Dar es Salaam, 1987), 82
58. J. Lugalla, "Socialist," 490
59. For a fuller account, see Yeager, 502-503
60. Shaidi, "Explaining Crime," 344
61. See Brennan, "Buguruni"; Burton, African Underclass, 182-83
62. Shaidi, "Explaining Crime," 348
63. See Kerner, "Hard Work"
64. Shaidi, "Explaining Crime"
65. idem., "Tanzania: The Human Resources Deployment Act 1983 - a Desperate Measure to Contain a Desperate Situation," Review of African Political Economy 31 (1984)
66. Katabaro Miti, "L'operation Nguvu Kazi a Dar es Salaam
67. Ardeur au travail et controle de l'espace urbain," Politique Africaine 17 (1985), 80-104
68. Maj. G. St. J. Orde-Browne, Labour Conditions in Tanganyika Territory (Dar es Salaam, 1926), para. 114
69. Goran Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry (London, 1980)
70. T.L. Maliyamkono and M.S.D. Bagachwa, The Second Economy in Tanzania (Oxford, U.K., 1990), 134
71. This concurs with Jim Brennan's thesis of the (colonial and postcolonial) state's self-conceived role as mediator in the distribution of basic necessities in urban areas. See "Nation, Race and Urbanization: Dar es Salaam, 1916-76" (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 2002)
72. See also Janet MacGaffey, "Issues and Methods in the Study of African Economies" in in J. MacGaffey, ed., The Real Economy of Zaire (Oxford, U.K., 1991)
73. See Tripp, Changing the Rules. Equally, it is perhaps no coincidence that perhaps the second biggest postcolonial urban campaign, Operation Rwegasira, occurred towards the end of a villagization program, Operation Tanzania, which had been far from an unqualified success
74. Mesaki, "Mikahawa," 22
75. E.g., DN, 27 June 1974, 3
76. See for example, Dar es Salaam City Council Minutes, May 1962; DN, 14 October 1975
77. Muhondwa, "Mbaruku," 76
78. S. Lucas, "Magenge and Urban Cultural Development," in "Magenge."
79. See Kironde, "Evolution," 175
80. and Brennan "Nation," 30-31
81. Leslie, Survey, at several points talks of ongoing attempts to clear Kisutu
82. SN, 2 June 1974
83. Cooper, Struggle, 30
84. Joe Lugalla, "Socialist Construction," 281
85. For colonial and African reactions towards urbanization among African youth, see Burton, "Urchins"
86. for gender conflict in the late 1960s see Ivaska, "Anti-Mini Militants."
87. E.g., see Burton, "Urchins" for generational conflict; correspondence on the presence of female Bahaya in the town in TNA/20887 for gender conflict
88. and for class, Burton, African Underclass, 58-61, 235-38