Mechanisms for increased cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney dysfunction

Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 181-188

  Yamamoto, Suguru ^a   Kon, Valentina ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

ABCA1; Atherosclerosis; Cholesterol; Chronic kidney disease; Macrophage

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN; LIPOPROTEIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

ATHEROGENESIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; DISEASE COURSE; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; KIDNEY INJURY; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; LIPID METABOLISM; MACROPHAGE; MINERAL METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; POPULATION RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; ANIMAL; ARTICLE; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; MACROPHAGES; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 67049145726     PISSN: 10624821     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/MNH.0b013e328327b360     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, et al. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention. Hypertension 2003; 42:1050-1065.
2. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998; 9:S16-23.
3. Elsayed EF, Tighiouart H, Griffith J, et al. Cardiovascular disease and subsequent kidney disease. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167:1130-1136.
4. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:1296-1305.
5. Anavekar NS, McMurray JJ, Velazquez EJ, et al. Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:1285-1295.
6. Klausen KP, Scharling H, Jensen JS. Very low level of microalbuminuria is associated with increased risk of death in subjects with cardiovascular or cerebrovascular diseases. J Intern Med 2006; 260:231-237.
7. Keith DS, Nichols GA, Gullion CM, et al. Longitudinal follow-up and outcomes among a population with chronic kidney disease in a large managed care organization. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:659-663.
8. Hallan SI, Dahl K, Oien CM, et al. Screening strategies for chronic kidney disease in the general population: follow-up of cross sectional health survey. BMJ 2006; 333:1047.
9. Coresh J, Selvin E, Stevens LA, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA 2007; 298:2038-2047.
10. McClellan WM, Newsome BB, McClure LA, et al. Chronic kidney disease is often unrecognized among patients with coronary heart disease: The REGARDS Cohort Study. Am J Nephrol 2009; 29:10-17. This report observes not only a high prevalence of CKD and a high prevalence of CVD in CKD, but emphasizes the low prevalence of awareness of kidney disease among the United States population with or without coronary heart disease which limits the possibility of therapeutic intervention.
11. Vassalotti JA, Stevens LA, Levey AS. Testing for chronic kidney disease: a position statement from the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 2007; 50:169-180.
12. Ford ES, Ajani UA, Croft JB, et al. Explaining the decrease in U.S. deaths from coronary disease, 1980-2000. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:2388-2398. A statistical model describes a dramatic decrease in deaths from coronary heart disease in the United States from 1980 through 2000 with approximately half the decline attributable to reductions in major risk factors and approximately half to evidence-based medical therapies.
13. Tonelli M, Wiebe N, Culleton B, et al. Chronic kidney disease and mortality risk: a systematic review. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17:2034-2047.
14. US renal data system. Excerpts from the USRDS. 2006. Annual data report. Am J Kidney Dis 2006; 49:S1-S296.
15. Muntner P, Mann D, Winston J, etal. Serum cystatin Cand increased coronary heart disease prevalence in US adults without chronic kidney disease. Am J Cardiol 2008; 102:54-57.
16. Parikh NI, Hwang SJ, Larson MG, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic kidney disease: overall burden and rates of treatment and control. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166:1884-1891.
17. Muntner P, He J, Astor BC, et al. Traditional and nontraditional risk factors predict coronary heart disease in chronic kidney disease: results from the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:529-538.
18. Chonchol M, Whittle J, Desbien A, et al. Chronic kidney disease is associated with angiographic coronary artery disease. Am J Nephrol 2008; 28:354-360.
19. Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Elsayed EF, et al. The relationship between non-traditional risk factors and outcomes in individuals with stage 3 to 4 CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2008; 51:212-223.
20. Kovesdy CP, Anderson JE. Reverse epidemiology in patients with chronic kidney disease who are not yet on dialysis. Semin Dial 2007; 20:566-569.
21. Shah DS, Polkinhorne KR, Pellicano R, Kerr PG. Are traditional risk factors valid for assessing cardiovascular risk in end-stage renal failure patients? Nephrology (Carlton) 2008; 13:667-671.
22. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Block G, Horwich T, Fonarow GC. Reverse epidemiology of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:1439-1444.
23. Parekh RS, Plantinga LC, Kao WH, et al. The association of sudden cardiac death with inflammation and other traditional risk factors. Kidney Int 2008; 74:1335-1342. A prospective study of dialysis patients found that elevated levels of high sensitivity C-reactive protein and IL-6 (markers of inflammation and malnutrition) were associated with a high risk of death, and were independent of traditional risk factors.
24. de Mutsert R, Grootendorst DC, Axelsson J, et al. Excess mortality due to interaction between protein-energy wasting, inflammation and cardiovascular disease in chronic dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:2957-2964.
25. Fouque D, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kopple J, et al. A proposed nomenclature and diagnostic criteria for protein-energy wasting in acute and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2008; 73:391-398.
26. Kendrick J, Chonchol MB. Nontraditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2008; 4:672-681.
27. Honda H, Qureshi AR, Heimburger O, et al. Serum albumin, C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and fetuin a as predictors of malnutrition, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in patients with ESRD. Am J Kidney Dis 2006; 47:139-148.
28. Soriano S, Gonzalez L, Martin-Malo A, et al. C-reactive protein and low albumin are predictors of morbidity and cardiovascular events in chronic kidney disease (CKD) 3-5 patients. Clin Nephrol 2007; 67:352-357.
29. Kielstein JT, Boger RH, Bode-Boger SM, etal. Marked increase of asymmetric dimethylarginine in patients with incipient primary chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13:170-176.
30. Kielstein JT, Zoccali C. Asymmetric dimethylarginine: a cardiovascular risk factor and a uremic toxin coming of age? Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 46:186-202.
31. Meinitzer A, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, et al. Asymmetrical dimethylarginine independently predicts total and cardiovascular mortality in individuals with angiographic coronary artery disease (the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health study). Clin Chem 2007; 53:273-283.
32. Annuk M, Soveri I, Zilmer M, et al. Endothelial function, CRP and oxidative stress in chronic kidney disease. J Nephrol 2005; 18:721-726.
33. Zoccali C, Bode-Boger S, Mallamaci F, et al. Plasma concentration of asymmetrical dimethylarginine and mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease: a prospective study. Lancet 2001; 358:2113-2117.
34. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med 2008; 359:2195-2207. Support for a key role of inflammation in atherosclerotic disease is provided by this study showing that resuvostatin-induced reduction in elevated levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein prevents cardiovascular events even in the absence of hyperlipidemia.
35. Vickery S, Webb MC, Price CP, et al. Prognostic value of cardiac biomarkers for death in a nondialysis chronic kidney disease population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:3546-3553. Along with reference 34 which reported results from apparently normal men and women, this study in individuals with pre-end-stage CKD suggests that high sensitivity C-reactive protein is a valuable prognostic marker of mortality.
36. Moe S, Drueke T, Cunningham J, et al. Definition, evaluation, and classification of renal osteodystrophy: a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int 2006; 69:1945-1953.
37. Kestenbaum B, Sampson JN, Rudser KD, et al. Serum phosphate levels and mortality risk among people with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:520-528.
38. Covic A, Kothawala P, Bernal M, et al. Systematic review of the evidence underlying the association between mineral metabolism disturbances and risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality and cardiovascular events in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008. Critical review of studies on mineral metabolic disturbances and cardiovascular events concluding a significant CVD risk with abnormal mineral metabolism in dialysis patients but not in pre-end-stage CKD.
39. Phan O, Ivanovski O, Nguyen-Khoa T, et al. Sevelamer prevents uremia-enhanced atherosclerosis progression in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 2005; 112:2875-2882.
40. Levin A, Li YC. Vitamin D and its analogues: do they protect against cardiovascular disease in patients with kidney disease? Kidney Int 2005; 68:1973-1981.
41. Tsimihodimos V, Dounousi E, Siamopoulos KC. Dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease: an approach to pathogenesis and treatment. Am J Nephrol 2008; 28:958-973.
42. Chan DT, Irish AB, Dogra GK, Watts GF. Dyslipidaemia and cardiorenal disease: mechanisms, therapeutic opportunities and clinical trials. Atherosclerosis 2008; 196:823-834. A thorough and accessible review of dyslipidemia across the spectrum of chronic renal disease.
43. Vaziri ND. Dyslipidemia of chronic renal failure: the nature, mechanisms, and potential consequences. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006; 290:F262-F272.
44. Asci G, Basci A, Shah SV, et al. Carbamylated low-density lipoprotein induces proliferation and increases adhesion molecule expression of human coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Nephrology (Carlton) 2008; 13:480-486.
45. Kalogerakis G, Baker AM, Christov S, et al. Oxidative stress and high-density lipoprotein function in Type I diabetes and end-stage renal disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 2005; 108:497-506.
46. Jurek A, Turyna B, Kubit P, Klein A. LDL susceptibility to oxidation and HDL antioxidant capacity in patients with renal failure. Clin Biochem 2006; 39:19-27.
47. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, et al. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with diabetes: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361:2005-2016.
48. Tonelli M, Collins D, Robins S, et al. Gemfibrozil for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in mild to moderate chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 2004; 66:1123-1130.
49. Tonelli M, Isles C, Craven T, et al. Effect of pravastatin on rate of kidney function loss in people with or at risk for coronary disease. Circulation 2005; 112:171-178.
50. Asselbergs FW, Diercks GF, Hillege HL, et al. Effects of fosinopril and pravastatin on cardiovascular events in subjects with microalbuminuria. Circulation 2004; 110:2809-2816.
51. Shepherd J, Kastelein JP, Bittner VA, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with coronary artery disease, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. Mayo Clin Proc 2008; 83:870-879. Aggressive lipid-lowering therapy with atorvastatin was found to be more effective in reducing cardiovascular events in CKD than in individuals with normal or near normal renal function.
52. Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Cushman M, et al. Cardiovascular mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: comparison of traditional and novel risk factors. JAMA 2005; 293:1737-1745.
53. Kilpatrick RD, McAllister CJ, Kovesdy CP, et al. Association between serum lipids and survival in hemodialysis patients and impact of race. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18:293-303.
54. Seliger SL, Weiss NS, Gillen DL, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are associated with reduced mortality in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2002; 61:297-304.
55. Andreucci VE, Fissell RB, Bragg-Gresham JL, et al. Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS) data on medications in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2004; 44:61-67.
56. Lahoz C, Mostaza JM, Mantilla MT, et al. Achievement of therapeutic goals and utilization of evidence-based cardiovascular therapies in coronary heart disease patients with chronic kidney disease. Am J Cardiol 2008; 101:1098-1102.
57. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, et al. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:238-248.
58. Lee CH, Plutzky J. Liver X receptor activation and high-density lipoprotein biology: a reversal of fortune? Circulation 2006; 113:5-8.
59. LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1425-1435.
60. Boden WE. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol as an independent risk factor in cardiovascular disease: assessing the data from Framingham to the Veterans Affairs High: Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86:19L-22L.
61. Nachimuthu S, Raggi P. Novel agents to manage dyslipidemias and impact atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets 2006; 6:209-217.
62. Nissen SE, Tsunoda T, Tuzcu EM, et al. Effect of recombinant ApoA-I Milano on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290:2292-2300.
63. Nissen SE, Tardif JC, Nicholls SJ, et al. Effect of torcetrapib on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:1304-1316. Despite favorable effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, the cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibitor, torcetrapib, failed to slow atherosclerosis progression and increased mortality.
64. Bots ML, Visseren FL, Evans GW, et al. Torcetrapib and carotid intima-media thickness in mixed dyslipidaemia (RADIANCE 2 study): a randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet 2007; 370:153-160.
65. Seiler S, Schlitt A, Jiang XC, et al. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity and cardiovascular events in patients with chronic kidney disease stage V. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:3599-3604.
66. Navab M, Reddy S, Van Lenten BJ, et al. Role of dysfunctional HDL in atherosclerosis. J Lipid Res 2008.
67. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kopple JD, Kamranpour N, et al. HDL-inflammatory index correlates with poor outcome in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2007; 72:1149-1156.
68. Miida T, Miyazaki O, Hanyu O, et al. LCAT-dependent conversion of prebeta1 -HDL into alpha-migrating HDL is severely delayed in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14:732-738.
69. Okubo K, Ikewaki K, Sakai S, et al. Abnormal HDL apolipoprotein A-I and A-II kinetics in hemodialysis patients: a stable isotope study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15:1008-1015.
70. Wang X, Rader DJ. Molecular regulation of macrophage reverse cholesterol transport. Curr Opin Cardiol 2007; 22:368-372.
71. Wang MD, Franklin V, Marcel YL. In vivo reverse cholesterol transport from macrophages lacking ABCA1 expression is impaired. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 27:1837-1842. Along with reference 72, the first in-vivo demonstration of the importance of the ABCA1 transporter for cholesterol transport.
72. Wang X, Collins HL, Ranalletta M, et al. Macrophage ABCA1 and ABCG1, but not SR-BI, promote macrophage reverse cholesterol transport in vivo. J Clin Invest 2007; 117:2216-2224. Demonstration that in addition to ABCA1, the ABCG1 transporter contributes to reverse cholesterol transport in vivo.
73. Chmielewski M, Bryl E, Marzec L, et al. Expression of scavenger receptor CD36 in chronic renal failure patients. Artif Organs 2005; 29:608-614.
74. Yvan-Charvet L, Ranalletta M, Wang N, et al. Combined deficiency of ABCA1 and ABCG1 promotes foam cell accumulation and accelerates atherosclerosis in mice. J Clin Invest 2007; 117:3900-3908. Transplantation of ABCA1-/-:ABCG1-/- bone marrow into LDLr-/- mice underscored a relationship between lipid homeostasis and inflammation in macro-phages where acceleration in atherosclerosis is related to increased inflammation and apoptosis in lipid engorged cells.
75. Suganuma E, Zuo Y, Ayabe N, et al. Antiatherogenic effects of angiotensin receptor antagonism in mild renal dysfunction. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17:433-441.
76. Bro S, Bentzon JF, Falk E, et al. Chronic renal failure accelerates atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14:2466-2474.
77. Massy ZA, Ivanovski O, Nguyen-Khoa T, et al. Uremia accelerates both atherosclerosis and arterial calcification in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:109-116.
78. Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:1547-1559.
79. Zuo YY, Linton P, Fazio MF, et al. Chronic renal damage (CKD) represses ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) to decrease macrophage efflux and promote foam cell formation: role of angiotensin II (AII). JASN 2007, 18:636A.
80. Kaplan M, Aviram M, Knopf C, Keidar S. Angiotensin II reduces macrophage cholesterol efflux: a role for the AT-1 receptor but not for the ABC1 transporter. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 290:1529-1534.
81. Takata Y, Chu V, Collins AR, et al. Transcriptional repression of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 gene in macrophages: a novel atherosclerotic effect of angiotensin II. Circ Res 2005; 97:e88-e96.
82. Wang Y, Chen Z, Liao Y, et al. Angiotensin II increases the cholesterol content of foam cells via down-regulating the expression of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 353:650-654. Demonstration that angiotensin II-induced foam cell formation involves down-regulation of the ABCA1 transporter.
83. Cardinal H, Raymond MA, Hebert MJ, Madore F. Uraemic plasma decreases the expression of ABCA1, ABCG1 and cell-cycle genes in human coronary arterial endothelial cells. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007; 22:409-416. Intriguing observations that uremic sera can regulate genes involved in cholesterol efflux.
84. Nakaya K, Ayaori M, Hisada T, et al. Telmisartan enhances cholesterol efflux from THP-1 macrophages by activating PPARgamma. J Atheroscler Thromb 2007; 14:133-141. Along with reference 82, demonstration that angiotensin II-induced down regulation in ABCA1 contributes to foam cell formation and the possibility that pharmacologic antagonism of angiotensin II actions can reverse this process.
85. Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, et al. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: the HOPE randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134:629-636.
86. Kessler M, Zannad F, Lehert P, et al. Predictors of cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal disease: an analysis from the Fosinopril in dialysis study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007; 22:3573-3579.
87. Takahashi A, Takase H, Toriyama T, et al. Candesartan, an angiotensin II type-1 receptor blocker, reduces cardiovascular events in patients on chronic haemodialysis-a randomized study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006; 21:2507-2512.
88. Suzuki H, Kanno Y, Sugahara S, et al. Effect of angiotensin receptor blockers on cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis: an open-label randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2008; 52:501-506.