Winter Depression: Integrating Mood, Circadian Rhythms, and the Sleep/Wake and Light/Dark Cycles into a Bio-Psycho-Social-Environmental Model

Sleep Medicine Clinics

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 285-299

  Lewy, Alfred J ^a   Emens, Jonathan S ^a   Songer, Jeannie B ^a   Sims, Neelam ^a   Laurie, Amber L ^a   Fiala, Steven C ^a   Buti, Allie ^a  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bio psycho social environmental model; Dim light melatonin onset (DLMO); Light; Melatonin; Phase angle difference (PAD); Winter depression (SAD)

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; MELATONIN; PLACEBO;

BEDTIME DOSAGE; BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CLINICAL TRIAL; GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY; HAMILTON SCALE; HUMAN; LIGHT DARK CYCLE; LIGHT EXPOSURE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MASS SPECTROMETRY; MOOD DISORDER; MORNING DOSAGE; NONHUMAN; PHOTOPERIODICITY; PHOTOTHERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; REVIEW; SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER; SLEEP WAKING CYCLE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 66449105257     PISSN: 1556407X     EISSN: 15564088     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsmc.2009.02.003     Document Type: Review

References (79)

1. Rosen L.N., and Rosenthal N.E. Seasonal variations in mood and behavior in the general population: a factor-analytic approach. Psychiatry Res 38 (1991) 271-283
2. Rosenthal N.E., Sack D.A., Gillin J.C., et al. Seasonal affective disorder: a description of the syndrome and preliminary findings with light therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41 (1984) 72-80
3. Kasper S., Wehr T.A., Bartko J.J., et al. Epidemiological findings of seasonal changes in mood and behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46 (1989) 823-833
4. Rosenthal N.E., Carpenter C.J., James S.P., et al. Seasonal affective disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 143 3 (1986) 356-358
5. Swedo S.E., Pleeter J.D., Richter D.M., et al. Rates of seasonal affective disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 152 (1995) 1016-1019
6. Williams J.B.W., Link M.J., Rosenthal N.E., et al. Structured interview guide for the Hamilton Depression Scale-Seasonal Affective Disorder version (SIGH-SAD) (1988), New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York
7. Lewy A.J., Lefler B.J., Emens J.S., et al. The circadian basis of winter depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (2006) 7414-7419
8. Kripke D.F., Mullaney D.J., Atkinson M., et al. Circadian rhythm disorders in manic-depressives. Biol Psychiatry 13 3 (1978) 335-351
9. Kripke D.F. Phase-advance theories for affective illness. In: Wehr T.A., and Goodwin F.K. (Eds). Circadian rhythms in psychiatry (1983), Boxwood Press, Pacific Grove (CA) 41-69
10. Wehr T.A., Wirz-Justice A., Goodwin F.K., et al. Phase advance of the circadian sleep-wake cycle as an antidepressant. Science 206 9 (1979) 710-713
11. Wever R. The circadian system of man: results of experiments under temporal isolation (1979), Springer-Verlag, New York
12. Goldman B.D., and Darrow J.M. The pineal gland and mammalian photoperiodism. Neuroendocrinology 37 (1983) 386-396
13. Lewy A.J., and Markey S.P. Analysis of melatonin in human plasma by gas chromatography negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Science 201 (1978) 741-743
14. Arendt J., Paunier L., and Sizonenko P.C. Melatonin radioimmunoassay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 40 (1975) 347-350
15. Wetterberg L., Arendt J., Paunier L., et al. Human serum melatonin changes during the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 42 (1976) 185-188
16. Arendt J., Wetterberg L., Heyden T., et al. Radioimmunoassay of melatonin: human serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Horm Res 8 2 (1977) 65-75
17. Smith J.A., Padwick D., Mee T.J.X., et al. Synchronous nyctohemeral rhythms in human blood melatonin and in human post-mortem pineal enzyme. Clin Endocrinol 6 3 (1977) 219-225
18. Lewy A.J., Tetsuo M., Markey S.P., et al. Pinealectomy abolishes plasma melatonin in the rat. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 50 1 (1980) 204-205
19. Neuwelt E.A., and Lewy A.J. Disappearance of plasma melatonin after removal of a neoplastic pineal gland. N Engl J Med 308 (1983) 1132-1135
20. Ozaki Y., and Lynch H.J. Presence of melatonin in plasma and urine of pinealectomized rats. Endocrinology 99 (1976) 641-644
21. Lewy A.J., Wehr T.A., Goodwin F.K., et al. Light suppresses melatonin secretion in humans. Science 210 (1980) 1267-1269
22. Arendt J. Melatonin assays in body fluids. J Neural Transm Suppl 13 (1978) 265-278
23. Wetterberg L. Melatonin in humans: physiological and clinical studies. [review]. J Neural Transm Suppl 13 (1978) 289-294
24. Akerstedt T., Fröberg J.E., Friberg Y., et al. Melatonin excretion, body temperature, and subjective arousal during 64 hours of sleep deprivation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 4 (1979) 219-225
25. Lewy A.J., Kern H.A., Rosenthal N.E., et al. Bright artificial light treatment of a manic-depressive patient with a seasonal mood cycle. Am J Psychiatry 139 11 (1982) 1496-1498
26. Lewy A.J., Sack R.L., Singer C.M., et al. The phase shift hypothesis for bright light's therapeutic mechanism of action: theoretical considerations and experimental evidence. Psychopharmacol Bull 23 3 (1987) 349-353
27. Lewy A.J., Sack R.L., Miller S., et al. Antidepressant and circadian phase-shifting effects of light. Science 235 (1987) 352-354
28. Avery D.H., Khan A., Dager S.R., et al. Bright light treatment of winter depression: morning versus evening light. Acta Psychiatr Scand 82 (1990) 335-338
29. Avery D., Khan A., Dager S., et al. Morning or evening bright light treatment of winter depression? The significance of hypersomnia. Biol Psychiatry 29 (1991) 117-126
30. Sack R.L., Lewy A.J., White D.M., et al. Morning versus evening light treatment for winter depression: evidence that the therapeutic effects of light are mediated by circadian phase shifts. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47 (1990) 343-351
31. Terman M., Terman J.S., Quitkin F.M., et al. Light therapy for seasonal affective disorder: a review of efficacy. Neuropsychopharmacology 2 1 (1989) 1-22
32. Thalén B.E., Kjellman B.F., Mørkrid L., et al. Light treatment in seasonal and nonseasonal depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 91 (1995) 352-360
33. Wirz-Justice A., Graw P., Kraeuchi K., et al. Light therapy in seasonal affective disorder is independent of time of day or circadian phase. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50 (1993) 929-937
34. Wehr T.A., Jacobsen F.M., Sack D.A., et al. Phototherapy of seasonal affective disorder: time of day and suppression of melatonin are not critical for antidepressant effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43 (1986) 870-875
35. Wehr T.A., Duncan W.C., Sher L., et al. A circadian signal of change of season in patients with seasonal affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 (2001) 1108-1114
36. Eastman C.I. Is bright-light therapy a placebo?. In: Partonen T., and Magnusson A. (Eds). Seasonal affective disorder practice and research (2001), Oxford University Press, New York 103-112
37. Eastman C.I., Young M.A., Fogg L.F., et al. Bright light treatment of winter depression: a placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 10 (1998) 883-889
38. Lewy A.J., Bauer V.K., Cutler N.L., et al. Morning versus evening light treatment of patients with winter depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 (1998) 890-896
39. Terman M., Terman J.S., and Ross D.C. A controlled trial of timed bright light and negative air ionization for treatment of winter depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 (1998) 875-882
40. Lewy A.J., Bauer V.K., Ahmed S., et al. The human phase response curve (PRC) to melatonin is about 12 hours out of phase with the PRC to light. Chronobiol Int 15 1 (1998) 71-83
41. Lewy A.J., and Sack R.L. Exogenous melatonin's phase shifting effects on the endogenous melatonin profile in sighted humans: a brief review and critique of the literature. J Biol Rhythms 12 (1997) 595-603
42. Redman J., Armstrong S., and Ng K.T. Free-running activity rhythms in the rat: entrainment by melatonin. Science 219 (1983) 1089-1091
43. Underwood H. Circadian rhythms in lizards: phase response curve for melatonin. J Pineal Res 3 (1986) 187-196
44. Gwinner E., and Benzinger I. Synchronization of a circadian rhythm in pinealectomized European starlings by injections of melatonin. J Comp Physiol 127 (1978) 209-213
45. Cassone V.M., and Menaker M. Is the avian circadian system a neuroendocrine loop?. J Exp Zool 232 (1984) 539-549
46. Sack R.L., Lewy A.J., and Hoban T.M. Free-running melatonin rhythms in blind people: phase shifts with melatonin and triazolam administration. In: Rensing L., an der Heiden U., and Mackey M.C. (Eds). Temporal disorder in human oscillatory systems (1987), Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg (Germany) 219-224
47. Arendt J., Bojkowski C., Folkard S., et al. Some effects of melatonin and the control of its secretion in man. In: Evered D., and Clark S. (Eds). Photoperiodism, melatonin and the pineal (1985), Ciba Foundation Symposium, London 266-283
48. Mallo C., Zaidan R., Faure A., et al. Effects of a four-day nocturnal melatonin treatment on the 24 h plasma melatonin, cortisol and prolactin profiles in humans. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 119 4 (1988) 474-480
49. Lewy A.J., Emens J.S., Sack R.L., et al. Low, but not high, doses of melatonin entrained a free-running blind person with a long circadian period. Chronobiol Int 19 3 (2002) 649-658
50. Lewy A.J., Ahmed S., Jackson J.M.L., et al. Melatonin shifts circadian rhythms according to a phase-response curve. Chronobiol Int 9 5 (1992) 380-392
51. Lewy AJ, Sack RL, Latham JM. Exogenous melatonin administration shifts circadian rhythms according to a phase response curve [abstract 021]. The Fifth Colloquium of the European Pineal Study Group. Guildford, England; 1990.
52. Lewy A.J., Emens J.S., Lefler B.J., et al. Melatonin entrains free-running blind people according to a physiological dose-response curve. Chronobiol Int 22 6 (2005) 1093-1106
53. Lewy A., Woods K., Kinzie J., et al. DLMO/Mid-sleep interval of six hours phase types SAD patients and parabolically correlates with symptom severity. Sleep 30 Abstract Supplement (2007) A63-A64
54. Lewy A., Rough J., Songer J., et al. The phase shift hypothesis for the circadian component of winter depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 9 (2007) 291-300
55. Lewy A.J., Sack R.L., Singer C.M., et al. Winter depression and the phase shift hypothesis for bright light's therapeutic effects: history, theory and experimental evidence. J Biol Rhythms 3 2 (1988) 121-134
56. Lam R.W., Levitt A.J., Levitan R.D., et al. The Can-SAD study: a randomized controlled trial of the effectiveness of light therapy and fluoxetine in patients with winter seasonal affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 163 5 (2006) 805-812
57. Rafferty B, Terman M, Terman JS, et al. Does morning light therapy prevent evening light effect? Society for Light Treatment and Biological Rhythms Abstracts 1990;2:18.
58. Terman J.S., Terman M., Lo E.-S., et al. Circadian time of morning light administration and therapeutic response in winter depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 1 (2001) 69-75
59. Terman M. Overview: light treatment and future directions of research. In: Wetterberg L. (Ed). Light and biological rhythms in man vol. 63 (1993), Pergamon Press, New York 421-436
60. Terman M., Quitkin F.M., Terman J.S., et al. The timing of phototherapy: effects on clinical response and the melatonin cycle. Psychopharmacol Bull 23 3 (1987) 354-357
61. Dahl K., Avery D.H., Lewy A.J., et al. Dim light melatonin onset and circadian temperature during a constant routine in hypersomnic winter depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 88 (1993) 60-66
62. Terman M., and Terman J.S. Light therapy for seasonal and nonseasonal depression: efficacy, protocol, safety, and side effects. CNS Spectr 10 8 (2005) 647-663
63. Lewy A.J. Melatonin and human chronobiology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 72 (2007) 626-636
64. Brown S.A., Kunz D., Dumas A., et al. Molecular insights into human daily behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105 5 (2008) 1602-1607
65. Emens J., Rough J., Arntz D., et al. Circadian misalignment correlates with symptom severity in non-seasonal depression. Sleep 31 (2008) A314 [Abstract Supplement]
66. Lewy A.J. Treating chronobiologic sleep and mood disorders with bright light. Psychiatr Ann 17 (1987) 664-669
67. Lewy A.J., Kern H.A., Rosenthal N.E., et al. Bright artificial light treatment of a manic-depressive patient with a seasonal mood cycle. Am J Psychiatry 139 11 (1982) 1496-1498
68. Lewy A.J., Sack R.L., and Singer C.M. Bright light, melatonin, and winter depression: the phase-shift hypothesis. In: Shafii M.A., and Shafii S.L. (Eds). Biological rhythms, mood disorders, light therapy, and the pineal gland (1990), American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 143-173
69. Kayumov L., Casper R.F., Hawa R.J., et al. Blocking low-wavelength light prevents nocturnal melatonin supression with no adverse effect on performance during simulated shift work. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 90 (2005) 2755-2761
70. Sasseville A., Paquet N., Sevigny J., et al. Blue blocker glasses impede the capacity of bright light to suppress melatonin production. J Pineal Res 41 (2006) 73-78
71. Sack R.L., Brandes R.W., Kendall A.R., et al. Entrainment of free-running circadian rhythms by melatonin in blind people. N Engl J Med 343 (2000) 1070-1077
72. Lewy A.J., Bauer V.K., Hasler B.P., et al. Capturing the circadian rhythms of free-running blind people with 0.5 mg melatonin. Brain Res 918 (2001) 96-100
73. Lewy A.J., Hasler B.P., Emens J.S., et al. Pretreatment circadian period in free-running blind people may predict the phase angle of entrainment to melatonin. Neurosci Lett 313 (2001) 158-160
74. Lewy A.J., Emens J.S., Sack R.L., et al. Zeitgeber hierarchy in humans: resetting the circadian phase positions of blind people using melatonin. Chronobiol Int 20 5 (2003) 837-852
75. Lewy A.J., Emens J.S., Bernert R.A., et al. Eventual entrainment of the human circadian pacemaker by melatonin is independent of the circadian phase of treatment initiation: clinical implications. J Biol Rhythms 19 1 (2004) 68-75
76. Keepers GA, Evans C, Colling E, et al. Circadian rhythm disturbances in adolescents with ADHD. Presented at the 159th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Toronto May 24, 2006.
77. Emens J, Lewy AJ, Rough J, et al. Sub-clinical dysphoria correlates with phase-delayed circadian misalignment in healthy subjects. Presented at the 47th Annual Meting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, Scottsdale, Arizona, December 5, 2008.
78. Czeisler C.A., Kronauer R.E., Allan J.S., et al. Bright light induction of strong (type O) resetting of the human circadian pacemaker. Science 244 (1989) 1328-1333
79. Johnson C.H. An atlas of phase response curves for circadian and circatidal rhythms (1990), Department of Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville (TN)