The expansion of traditional irrigation in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

International Journal of African Historical Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 461-490

  Tagseth, Mattias ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 65849422309     PISSN: 03617882     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. John E.G. Sutton, "The History of African Agricultural Technology and Field Systems," Azania 24 (1989), 98-112;
2. Mats Widgren, "Towards a Historical Geography of Intensive Farming in Eastern Africa," in Mats Widgren and John E.G. Sutton, eds., Islands of Intensive Agriculture in Eastern Africa (Irthling-borough: James Currey, 2004), 1-18.
3. Julius D. Sarmett and S. A. Faraji, "The Hydrology of Mount Kilimanjaro: An Examination of Dry Season Runoff and Factors Leading to Its Decrease," in William D. Newmark, ed., The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro (Gland: 1UCN-The World Conservation Union, 1991), 53-70;
4. IUCN, Pangani Basin: A Situation Analysis (Nairobi: IUCN Eastern Africa Program, 2003).
5. Mary Tiffen, Michael Mortimore, and Francis Gichuki, More People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in Kenya (Chichester, UK: J. Wiley, 1994);
6. James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
7. The "hill furrow" technology is found in locations in southern Ethiopia, and at least as far south as Iringa in southern Tanzania. See William M. Adams, Wasting the Rain: Rivers, People and Planning in Africa (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992),
8. and Raphael Burra and Kick van den Heuvel, Traditional Irrigation in Tanzania, vol. 1, Historical Analysis of Irrigation Tradition and Government Intervention (Dar es Salaam: SNV-TIP, 1987).
9. Widgren, 'Towards a Historical Geography of Intensive Farming."
10. Adams, Wasting the Rain.
11. World Bank, Staff Appraisal Report. River Basin Management-Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (Dar es Salaam: The World Bank, 1996);
12. Samuel A. Zongolo, Shangwe Kiluvia, and Grace Mghase, Traditional Irrigation Assessment Report: Moshi Rural District (Moshi, Tanzania: Traditional Irrigation and Environmental Development Organisation, 2000);
13. Japanese International Cooperation Agency and Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, The Study on the National Irrigation Master Plan in the United Republic of Tanzania (Dar es Salaam: Nippon Koei Co., 2002).
14. William M. Adams, "Definition and Development in African Indigenous Irrigation," Azania, 24 (1989), 21-27;
15. See Walter Geilinger, "The Retreat of the Kilimanjaro Glaciers," Tanganyika Notes and Records 2 (1936), 7-20.
16. Stefan Hastenrath and Larry Greischar, "Glacier Recession on Kilimanjaro, East Africa, 1912-89," Journal of Glaciology 43, 145 (1997), 455-59.
17. Sarmett and Faraji, "The Hydrology of Mount Kilimanjaro," 61-62;
18. United Republic of Tanzania, Report on the Meeting on Water Utilisation and Shortage in the Pangani River Basin (Moshi: United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Water Energy and Minerals, 1994);
19. Julius D. Sarmett, "Water Resources Managment in Pangani River Basin with Particular Reference to Kilimanjaro Region" (workshop on Water Managment in the Pangani Basin, Bahari Beach, Dar es Salaam 1-2 July 1999);
20. R.L. Daluti, Report on the Agro-Socio-Economic Situation in Pangani River Catchment (Moshi: United Republic of Tanzania-Zonal Irrigation Office Moshi, 1994);
21. IUCN, Pangani Basin, 33-34, 71-72;
22. Miline J. Mbonile, "Population Dynamics on the Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro," in Bernard Charlery de la Masseliére, ed., Mount Kilimanjaro: Land Use and Environmental Managment (Nairobi: IFRA, 1999), 18-23;
23. Miline J. Mbonile, "Migration and Intensification of Water Conflicts in the Pangani River Basin, Tanzania," Habitat International 29, 1 (2005), 41-67.
24. See Ivar S. Holand, "More People, More Trees. Population Growth, the Chagga Irrigation System, and the Expansion of a Sustainable Agroforestry System on Mount Kilimanjaro" (Cand. Polit. thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 1996);
25. Mattias Tagseth, "Knowledge and Development in Mifongo Irrigation Systems: Three Case Studies from Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania" (Cand. Polit. thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2000).
26. A.G. Pike, "Kilimanjaro and the Furrow System," Tanganyika Notes and Records 64 (1965), 95-96;
27. Daluti, Report on the Agro-Socio-Economic Situation.
28. See Matthew Bender, "Water Brings No Harm. Knowledge, Power, and Practice on Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 1880-1980" (Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 2006), 247, 268, 273.
29. Early Iron Age in Tanzania dates from AD 100-1000, while Late Iron Age dates from 1000-1800.
30. Amin A. Mturi, Archaeology of Tanzania (Dar es Salaam: The Open University of Tanzania, 1998).
31. William M. Adams and David M. Anderson, "Irrigation before Development: Indigenous and Induced Change in Agricultural Water Management in East Africa," African Affairs 87, 349 (1988), 519-35.
32. N. Thomas Håkansson, "Livestock and the Development of Indigenous Irrigation in East Africa," EDSU Working Paper 46 (2003), 28-30.
33. Stephen Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals: Anthropology and History in Tanzania (Madison and London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
34. Tiffen Mortimore, and Gichuki, More People, Less Erosion.
35. Thomas Spear, Mountain Farmers: Moral Economies of Land and Agricultural Development in Arusha and Meru (Oxford: James Currey, 1997).
36. John E.G. Sutton, "Engaruka," in Widgren and Sutton, eds., Islands of Intensive Agriculture, 114-32;
37. Daryl Stump, "The Development and Expansion of the Field and Irrigation Systems at Engaruka, Tanzania," Azania 41 (2006), 69-94.
38. Fidelis T. Masao, "The Irrigation System in Uchagga: An Ethno-Historical Approach," Tanzania Notes and Records 75 (1974), 1-8;
39. Robert Soper "A Survey of the Irrigation Systems of the Marakwet," in B.E. Kipkorir, R. C. Soper, and J.W. Ssenyonga, eds., Kerio Valley: Past, Present, Future (proceedings of a seminar held in Nairobi at the Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi, 21-22 May 1981, Nairobi, Institute of African Studies, 1983), 75-95;
40. Julius T. Kodalo, "An Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Marakwet Irrigation Furrows: A Case Study from the Embobout and Arror Rivers, Kerio Valley, Kenya," Nyame Akuma 53, (2000), 12-21;
41. Wilhelm Östberg, "The Expansion of Marakwet Hill-Furrow Irrigation in the Kerio Valley of Kenya," in Widgren and Sutton, eds., Islands of Intensive Agriculture, 19-48;
42. Mattias Tagseth, "Oral History and the Development of Indigenous Irrigation. Methods and Examples from Kilimanjaro, Tanzania," Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift-Norwegian Journal of Geography 62, 1 (2008), 9-22.
43. Johannes Rebmann, "Journey to Jagga," in J. Lewis Krapf, ed., Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa: Together with Journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia, and Khartum; and a Coasting Voyage from Mombaz to Cape Delgado (London: Trübner, 1860), 230-65;
44. Otto Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen in Ost-Afrika in den Jahren 1859 bis 1865, vol. 1 (Leipzig and Heidelberg: C. F. Wintersche Verlagshandlung, 1869), 270.
45. Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen, vol. 1, 269, 271, 280, 290;
46. Otto Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen in Ost-Afrika in den Jahren 1859 bis 1865, vol. 2 (Leipzig and Heidelberg: C.F. Wintersche Verlagshandlung, 1871), 40, 44, 58.
47. Charles New, Life, Wanderings and Labours in Eastern Africa: With an Account of the First Successful Ascent of the Equatorial Snow Mountain, Kilima Njaro and Remarks upon East African Slavery (1873; reprint, London: Frank Cass, 1971).
48. Harry H. Johnston, The Kilima-njaro Expedition. A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa. And a General Description of the Natural History, Languages, and Commerce of the Kilima-njaro District (London: Kegan, Paul Trench, 1886).
49. Georg Volkens, Der Kilimandscharo. Darstellung der allgemeineren Ergäbnisse eines fünfzehnmonatigen Aufenhalles im Dschaggalande (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1897), 74-75, 145.
50. Knut Odner, "A Preliminary Report on an Archaeological Survey on the Slopes of Kilimanjaro," Azania 6 (1971), 131-49.
51. Bruno Gutmann, "Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbraüche der Wadchagga," Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 45 (1913), 474-511;
52. Bruno Gutmann, The Tribal Teachings of the Chagga, vol. 1 (1932; translation from German, New Haven: Human Relations Area Files, 1958).
53. See Gutmann, Tribal Teachings;
54. Bender, "Water Brings No Harm."
55. Masao, "The Irrigation System in Uchagga."
56. Kathleen Stahl, History of the Chagga People of Kilimanjaro (London: Mouton, 1964).
57. Tagseth, "Oral History and the Development of Indigenous Irrigation."
58. Stahl, History of the Chagga.
59. Masao, "The Irrigation System in Uchagga," 8.
60. Interview, Mrs. E.J. Mgonja, Vuchama Ndambwe village, Ugweno Division, North Pare 17 July, 2003.
61. Interview, Mr. Onesmo A. Manga, Mbokomu, Moshi R. District, 2 November, 2002. Collection tanks are also used in South Pare and the Usambaras.
62. Rebmann, "Journey to Jagga."
63. Carl Lent, "Das Kilimandjaro Gebiet zwischen Moshi und Taweta mit der wissenschaftlichen Marangu-station," Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schulzgebieten 9 (1896), 42.
64. Ludger Wimmelbücker, Kilimanjaro-A Regional History, vol. 1, Production and Living Conditions: c. 1800-1920 (Münster: LIT Verlag, 2002).
65. Hans Meyer, Ostafrikanische Gletscherfahrten: Forschungsreisen im Kilimandscharo-Gebiet (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1890), Karte II.
66. This "siege hypothesis" has been criticized by Lowe Börjeson, "Boserup Backwards? Agricultural Intensification as 'Its Own Driving Force" in the Mbulu Highlands, Tanzania," Geografiska Annaler, Series B: Human Geography 89, 3 (2007), 249-67.
67. Thomas N. Håkansson, "Irrigation, Population Pressure, and Exchange in Precolonial Pare, Tanzania," Research in Economic Anthropology 16, (1995), 297-323.
68. Patrick Fleurét, "The Social Organisation of Water Control in the Taita Hills, Kenya," American Ethnologist: A Journal of the American Ethnological Association 12, 1 (1985), 103-118;
69. Michael J. Sheridan, "An Irrigation Intake Is Like a Uterus: Culture and Agriculture in Precolonial North Pare, Tanzania," American Anthropologist 104, 1 (2002), 79-92.
70. Isaria N. Kimambo, "Environmental Control and Hunger," in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin, and Isaria N. Kimambo, eds., Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London: James Currey, 1996), 71-95.
71. Sally Falk Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications: 'Customary' Law on Kilimanjaro 1880-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
72. Kersten, Von der Decken 's Reisen, vol. 1 ;
73. Von der Decken 's Reisen, vol. 2.
74. Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen, vol. 2, 58.
75. Johnston, The Kilima-njaro Expedition;
76. A. Widenmann, "Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung. Anthropoligishes und Ethnographisches aus dem Dschaggalande," Petermanns Mitteilungen Ergänzungsheft 129 (1899), 71.
77. Cultivated and settled areas are documented in several route descriptions. The limits of the cultivated areas are shown by Meyer, "Originalkarte des Kilima-Ndscharo," and Lent, "Das Kilimandjaro Gebiet."
78. Volkens, Der Kilimandscharo, 135;
79. Widenmann, "Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung," 65.
80. Volkens, Der Kilimandscharo, 74, 234;
81. Widenmann, "Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung," 71.
82. Rebmann, "Journey to Jagga;" Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen, vol, 1. New, Life, Wanderings, and Labours;
83. Gutmann, "Feldbausitten."
84. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land: A Journey of Exploration among the Snowclad Volcanic Mountains and Strange Tribes of Eastern Equatorial Africa, being the Narrative of the Royal Geographical Society's Expedition to Mount Kenia and Lake Victoria Nyanza, 1883-84 (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, 1885), 142;
85. J.R. Curry, "Eleusine Cultivation by the Wachagga on Kilimanjaro," The East African Agricultural Journal 5 (March 1939), 386-90.
86. Wimmelbücker, Kilimanjaro;
87. Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of Tanganyika 1850-1950 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).
88. Wimmelbiicker, Kilimanjaro.
89. Kersten, Von der Decken's Reisen, 1.
90. M. Merker, "Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga," Petermanns Mitteilungen Ergänzungsheft 138 (1902), 40.
91. Interview by author, Mr. Alois Merishani Mlay, Marangu West Ward 26 February, 1996.
92. D.M. Mwita, Rights in Respect of Water in Tanganyika (Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam, 1975).
93. Yngve Sjöstedt [Baron Bror v. Blixen], Bland Storvildt i Ostafrika (Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt and Söners Förlag, 1911).
94. Official measurements showed 0.42 hectares of available land per capita in 1913. Juhani Koponen, Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884-1914 (Helsinki: Finnish Historical Society, 1995), 630.
95. 2. A.W. Griffith, Chagga Land Tenure Report (Moshi District: Government of Tanganyika, 1930), Appendix b.
96. Griffith, "Chagga Land Tenure."
97. See R.J.M. Swynnerton, "Some Problems of the Chagga on Kilimanjaro," East African Agricultural Journal (Amani) 15 (January 1949), 117-32.
98. G.F. Webster "Northern Province," in Annual Reports of the Provincial Commissioners on Native Administration for the Year 1932 (Dar es Salaam: The Government Printer, 1933), 38-62;
99. D.S. Troup "Northern Province," in Annual Reports of the Provincial Commissioners for the Year 1952 (Dar es Salaam: The Government Printer, 1953), 85-112.
100. The expansion of kihamba agroforestry is documented by Holand, "More People, More Trees,"
101. and by Patrick Bailey and John Mumford, "The Changing Economy of the Chagga Cultivators of Marangu, Tanzania," Geography 53, 2 (1968), 163-69.
102. Bruno Gutmann, "Das Wasserrecht. Dargestellt nach dem Bewässerungssystem der Wamotsi und Wambokomu," in Bruno Gutmann, Das Recht der Dschagga. Mit einem Nachwort des Herausgebers: Zur Entwicklungspsychologie des Rechts (Munich: Beck, 1926), 413-21.
103. Gutmann, "Feldbausitten;" Gutmann, "Das Wasserrecht."
104. Gutmann, "Das Wasserrecht," 419.
105. Edmund O. Teale and Clement Gillman, Report on the Investigation of the Proper Control of Water and the Re-Organisation of Water Boards in the Northern Province of Tanganyika Territory November-December 1934 (Morogoro: Government Printer, 1935);
106. Mwita, Rights in Respect of Water.
107. Teale and Gillman, The Proper Control of Water;
108. L.L.R. Buckland, Water Executive Annual Report (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1939);
109. L.L.R. Buckland, Water Executive Annual Report 1940 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1940);
110. G.J. Partridge, "Northern Province," in Annual Reports of the Provincial Commissioners on Native Administration for the Year 1939 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1940), 45-59.
111. C.F.C.V. Cadiz, "Northern Province," in Annual Reports of the Provincial Commissioners for the Year 1953 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1954), 79-92.
112. Buckland, Water Executive 1939;
113. Buckland, Water Executive 1940.
114. Pike, "Kilimanjaro and the Furrow System."
115. M.J.B. Molohan, "Northern Province," in Annual Reports of the Provincial Commissioners for the Year 1959 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1960), 103-134.
116. East African Statistical Department-Tanganyika Unit, Statistical Abstract 1960 (Dar es Salaam: Government Printer, 1960), 71.
117. Molohan, "Northern Province 1959."
118. Bender, "Water Brings No Harm," 257.
119. Swynnerton, "Some Problems of the Chagga";
120. William Halcrow, The Development of the Pangani River Basin (London: Sir William Halcrow, 1962);
121. United Republic of Tanzania-MWEM, The Meeting on Water Utilisation and Shortage.
122. Molohan, "Northern Province 1959," 125.
123. Bender, "Water Brings No Harm," 263.
124. M.A. Burton and C.K. Chiza, "Water, Conflicts and the Environment," in Tom R. Franks, Laurence E.D. Smith, and Melvin Kay, eds., Water: Economics, Management and Demand (London: Spoon Press, 1997), 173-80;
125. Koichi Ikegami, "The Traditional Agrosilvopastoral Complex System in the Kilimanjaro Region, and Its Implications for the Japanese-Assisted Lower Moshi Irrigation Project," African Study Monographs 15,4 (1994), 189-209.
126. The area was reduced to be comparable with 121 schemes in a hydrological region centered on Machame listed by Mosgrove, "Watering African Moons," 253-57.
127. Mattias Tagseth, "Local Practices and Changes in Fanner-Managed Irrigation in the Himo Catchment, Kilimanjaro," in James O. Ngana, ed., Water Resources Management-The Case of Pangani River Basin (Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam Press, 2002), 48-63.
128. Mattias Tagseth, "The 'Mfongo' Irrigation Systems on the Slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania," in Terje Tvedt and Eva Jakobsson, eds., A History of Water, vol. 1, Water Control and River Biographies (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 488-506.
129. Haakon Lein, "Migration, Irrigation and Land Use Changes in the Lowlands of Kilimanjaro," in Water Resources Management, 28-38;
130. Fred Simon Lerise, Politics in Land and Water Use Management: Study in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (New Dehli: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, 2005);
131. Jirgal Beez, Die Ahnen essen keinen Reis. Vom lokalen Umgang mit einem Bewässerungsprojekt am Fuße des Kilimanjaro in Tansania (Bayreuth: University of Bayreuth, 2005), http://opus.ub.uni-bayreuth.de/ volltexte/2005/168/ (accessed 19 February 2007).
132. William Louis Abbott, "Ethnological Collections in the U.S. National Museum from Kilima-Njaro, East Africa," in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations, Expenditures and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ending June 30th, 1891 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1892), 381-420;
133. Charles Dundas, Kilimanjaro and Its People: A History of the Wachagga, Their Laws, Customs, and Legends, Together with Some Account of the Highest Mountain in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1924);
134. Paul S. Maro, "Population and Land Resources in Northern Tanzania: The Dynamics of Change, 1920-1970" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1974);
135. East African Statistical Department-Tanganyika Unit Statistical Abstract 1960;
136. URT, Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania Sensa 1978. Population Census (Dar es Salaam: United Republic of Tanzania-Takwimu/Bureau of Statistics, 1982);
137. President's Office, Planning Commission, Sensa ya Watu na Makazi ya Mwaka 2002 (Dar es Salaam: United Republic of Tanzania, Takwimu, 2003), http://www.tanzania.go.tz/sensa/kilimanjaro.htm (accessed 15 February 2007).
138. Bureau of Statistics/President's Office, Planning Commission, Sensa 2002.
139. See e.g., Johnston, The Kilimanjaro Expedition;
140. Dundas, Kilimanjaro and Its People;
141. Östberg, "The Expansion of Marakwet Irrigation."
142. David M. Anderson, Eroding the Commons: The Politics of Ecology in Baringo, Kenya 1890s-1963 (Oxford: James Currey, 2002).
143. See Tagseth, "Practices and Changes in Farmer Managed Irrigation."
144. Frans d Huijzendveld, "Changes in Political Economy and Ecology in West-Usambara, Tanzania: ca. 1850-1950," International Journal of African Historical Studies 41, 3 (2008), 383-409;
145. N. Thomas Håkansson, "Regional Political Ecology and Intensive Cultivation in Pre-Colonial and Colonial South Pare, Tanzania," International Journal of African Historical Studies 41, 3 (2008), 433-459;
146. Michael J. Sheridan, "Cooling the Land: Politics, Ecology, and Culture in the North Pare Mountains of Tanzania" (Ph.D. thesis, Boston University 2001).
147. Mbonile, "Migration and Intensification of Water Conflicts."
148. Mbonile, "Migration and Intensification of Water Conflicts", 43, 63-64.
149. High population densities in areas with little irrigation are striking (Rombo: Mkuu and Usseri, Moshi: Mamba);
150. Philip W. Porter and Norman. J.W. Thrower, "Annals Map Supplement. Number Six: East Africa-Population Distribution," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 56, 1 (1966), 180.
151. Lent, "Das Kilimandjaro Gebiet";
152. Gutmann, "Feldbausitten," 502;
153. Widenmann, "Die Kilimandscharo-Bevölkerung," 69.
154. Moore, Social Facts and Fabrications.
155. New, Life, Wanderings, and Labours;
156. The exchange of 1,640 litres of brew, corresponding in my estimation to forty-five sacks of grain and 800 liters of ripe banana, is mentioned by Petro Itosi Marealle, Maisha ya Mchagga hapa Duniani na Ahera (Nairobi: The English Press, 1947).
157. Bender, "Water Brings No Harm," 50.
158. The Irish potato, Mexican cypress, silky oak (grevillea), cotton, ceara rubber, and arabic coffee were among the important new plants from the German period, according to Robert Munson, "The Landscape of German Colonialism: Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Mem, ca 1890-1916 (Tanzania)" (Ph.D. thesis, Boston University, 2005).
159. J.F.R. Hill and J.P. Moffet, Tanganyika. A Review of Its Resources and Their Development (Norwich, UK: The Government of Tanganyika, 1955), 378-79.
160. Tagseth, "Practices and Changes in Farmer-Managed Irrigation";
161. Francois Devenne, "On the 'Mountain of Waters' the Furrows Are Running Dry: Rethinking Mount Kilimanjaro's Irrigation System," in Francois Bart, Milline J. Mbonile, and Francois Devenne, eds., Kilimanjaro. Mountain, Memory, Modernity (Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, 2006), 201-14.
162. Munson, "The Landscape of German Colonialism."
163. Lein, "Migration, Irrigation, and Land Use Changes."
164. Mark Wilson, Report of the Arusha-Moshi Lands Commission (Dares Salaam: Government Printer, 1947), Appendix E.
165. Lein, "Migration, Irrigation and Land Use Changes."
166. Kahe, Arusha Chini, Taveta (Kenya) are known sites.
167. Lerise, Politics in Land and Water Use Management.
168. Examples of Chagga satellites are found in Babati (interview, Mr. Emanuel Moses Mlay, 21 July, 2002 in Haraa village, Babati District) and in Ugweno Division, North Pare (interview, Mr. William O. Mrita, 20 November, 2003).
169. Beez, Die Ahnen essen keinen Reis.
170. Teale and Gilllman, The Proper Control of Water;
171. Jan Rudengren, Peasants by Preference? Socioeconomic and Environmental Aspects of Rural Development in Tanzania (Stockholm: Economic Research Institute, Stockholm School of Economics, 1981), A42.
172. Rudengren, Peasants by Preference? Lein, "Migration, Irrigation, and Land Use Changes";
173. Håkansson, Regional Political Ecology.
174. Burra and van den Heuvel, Traditional Irrigation in Tanzania.
175. Ikegami, "The Traditional Agrosilvopastoral Complex System.''
176. Japanese International Cooperation Agency and Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, The National Irrigation Master Plan.
177. Butingo A.S. Luhumbika, Report on Water Availability to Coffee / Banana Belt in Kilimanjaro Region with Particular Reference to Hai and Moshi Rural Districts (Hale: Pangani Basin Water Office, 1999);
178. Morten Reed-Erichsen, "Negotiations over Rights to Water. The Process of Determining Allocation of Water between Farmers and Estates, in the Context of Coffee-Producing Estates in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania" (Cand. Polit. thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2003).
179. Rudengren, Peasants by Preference?