Pathogenic perspectives for the role of inflammation in diabetic nephropathy

Clinical Science

Volumn 116, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 479-492

  Rivero, Antonio ^a   Mora, Carmen ^a   Muros, Mercedes ^a   García, Javier ^a   Herrera, Havidian ^a   Navarro González, Juan F ^a  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO NUESTRA SEÑORA DE CANDELARIA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Diabetic nephropathy; Inflammation; Innate immunity; Pro inflammatory cytokine

Indexed keywords

ADIPONECTIN; ALBUMIN; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CHEMOKINE; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 18; INTERLEUKIN 6; LEPTIN; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; PENTOXIFYLLINE; RESISTIN; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1; VITAMIN D; ADIPOCYTOKINE; AUTACOID; CYTOKINE;

ALBUMINURIA; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DRUG EFFICACY; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; GENE FUNCTION; GENE LOSS; GENE REPRESSION; GENE TARGETING; HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOREACTIVITY; INNATE IMMUNITY; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHARMACOLOGICAL BLOCKING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; REVIEW; URINARY EXCRETION; INFLAMMATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

ADIPOKINES; CYTOKINES; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHIES; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

EID: 65249102179     PISSN: 01435221     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1042/CS20080394     Document Type: Review

References (189)

1. Vivian, E. M. (2006) Type 2 children and adolescents - the next epidemic? Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 22, 297-306
2. Ritz, E., Rychlik, I., Locatelli, F. and Halimi, S. (1999) End-stage renal failure in type 2 diabetes: a medical catastrophe of worldwide dimensions. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 34, 795-808
3. Pickup, J. and Crook, M. (1998) Is type II diabetes mellitus a disease of the innate immune system. Diabetologia 41, 1241-1248
4. Festa, A., D'Agostino, R., Howard, G. et al. (2000) Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation 101, 42-47
5. Navarro, J. F. and Mora, C. (2005) Role of inflammation on diabetic complications. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 20, 2601-2604
6. Pickup, J. C. (2004) Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27, 813-823
7. Ford, E. S. (1999) Body mass index, diabetes, and C-reactive protein among US adults. Diabetes 22, 1971-1977
8. Müller, S., Martin, S., Koenig, W. et al. (2002) Impaired glucose tolerance is associated with increased serum concentrations of interleukin 6 and co-regulated acute-phase proteins but not TNF-α or its receptors. Diabetologia 45, 805-812
9. Temelkova-Kurktschiev, T., Henkel, E., Koelher, C. et al. (2002) Subclinical inflammation in newly detected type II diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetologia 45, 151
10. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Macía, M. and García, J. (2003) Inflammatory parameters are independently associated with urinary albumin excretion in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 42, 53-61
11. Pickup, J. C., Chusney, G. C., Thomas, S. M. and Burt, D. (2000) Plasma interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor α and blood cytokine production in type 2 diabetes. Life Sci. 67, 291-300
12. Schmidt, M. I., Duncan, B. B., Sharrett, A. R. et al. (1999) Markers of inflammation and prediction of diabetes mellitus in adults (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study): a cohort study. Lancet 353, 1649-1652
13. Pradhan, A. D., Manson, J. E., Rifai, N. et al. (2001) C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 286, 327-334
14. Festa, A. D'Agostino, R. Tracey, R. P. and Haffner, S. M. (2002) Elevated levels of acute-phase proteins and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 predict the development of type 2 diabetes: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes 51, 1131-1137
15. Spranger, J., Kroke, A., Möhlig, M. et al. (2003) Inflammatory cytokines and the risk to develop type 2 diabetes: results of the prospective population-based European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Potsdam study. Diabetes 52, 812-817
16. Hak, A. E., Pols, H. A., Stehouwer, C. D. et al. (2001) Markers of inflammation and cellular adhesion molecules in relation to insulin resistance in nondiabetic elderly: the Rotterdam Study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 4398-4405
17. Weyer, C., Yudkin, J. S., Stehouwer, C. D., Schalkwijk, C. G., Pratley, R. E. and Tataranni, P. A. (2001) Humoral markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in relation to adiposity and in vivo insulin action in Pima Indians. Atherosclerosis 161, 233-242
18. Chan,W. B., Chan, N. N., Lai, C.W. et al. (2006) Vascular defect beyond the endothelium in type II diabetic patients with overt nephropathy and moderate renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 70, 711-716
19. Zhao, H. J., Wang, S., Cheng, H. et al. (2006) Endothelial nitric oxide synthase deficiency produces accelerated nephropathy in diabetic mice. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 2664-2669
20. Nakagawa, T., Sato, W., Glushakova, O. et al. (2007) Diabetic eNOS knockout mice develop advanced diabetic nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 18, 539-550
21. Kanetsuna, Y., Takahashi, K., Nagata, M. et al. (2007) Deficiency of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase confers susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy in nephropathy-resistant inbred mice. Am. J. Pathol. 170, 1473-1484
22. Nakagawa, T., Sato, W., Sautin, Y. Y. et al. (2006) Uncoupling of vascular endothelial growth factor with nitric oxide as a mechanism for diabetic vasculopathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 736-745
23. Pinkney, J. H., Stehouwer, C. D., Coppack, S. W. and Yudkin, J. S. (1997) Endothelial dysfunction: cause of the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes 46 (Suppl. 2), S9-S13
24. Pickup, J. C., Mattock, M. B., Chusney, G. D. and Burt, D. (1997) NIDDM as a disease of the innate immune system: association of acute phase reactants and interleukin-6 with metabolic syndrome X. Diabetologia 40, 1286-1292
25. Pickup, J. C. and Crook, M. A. (1998) Is type II diabetes mellitus a disease of the innate immune system? Diabetologia 41, 1241-1248
26. Utimura, R., Fujihara, C. K., Mattar, A. L. et al. (2003) Mycophenolate mofetil prevents the development of glomerular injury in experimental diabetes. Kidney Int. 63, 209-216
27. Wu, Y. G., Lin, H., Qi, X. M. et al. (2006) Prevention of early renal injury by mycophenolate mofetil and its mechanism in experimental diabetes. Int. Immunopharmacol. 6, 445-453
28. Yozai, K., Shikata, K., Sasaki, M. et al. (2005) Methotrexate prevents renal injury in experimental diabetic rats via anti-inflammatory actions. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 3326-3338
29. Tone, A., Shikata, K., Sasaki, M. et al. (2005) Erythromycin ameliorates renal injury via anti-inflammatory effects in experimental diabetic rats. Diabetologia 48, 2402-2411
30. Kadowaki, T., Yamauchi, T., Kubota, N., Hara, K., Ueki, K. and Tobe, K. (2006) Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes and metabolic syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 116, 1784-1792
31. Yamauchi, T., Kamon, J., Waki, H. et al. (2001) The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat. Med. 7, 941-946
32. Ceddia, R. B., Somwar, R., Maida, A., Fang, X., Bikopoulos, G. and Sweeney, G. (2005) Globular adiponectin increases GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake but reduces glycogen synthesis in rat skeletal muscle cells. Diabetologia 48, 132-139
33. Fu, Y., Luo, N., Klein, R. L. and Garvey, W. T. (2005) Adiponectin promotes adipocyte differentiation, insulin sensitivity, and lipid accumulation. J. Lipid Res. 46, 1369-1379
34. Hara, K., Horikoshi, M., Yamauchi, T. et al. (2006) Measurement of the high-molecular weight form of adiponectin in plasma is useful for the prediction of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 29, 1357-1362
35. Waki, H., Yamauchi, T., Kamon, J. et al. (2003) Impaired multimerization of human adiponectin mutants associated with diabetes. Molecular structure and multimer formation of adiponectin. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 40352-40363
36. Ouedraogo, R., Gong, Y., Berzins, B. et al. (2007) Adiponectin deficiency increases leukocyte-endothelium interactions via upregulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. 117, 1718-1726
37. Granger, D. N., Vowinkel, T. and Petnehazy, T. (2004) Modulation of the inflammatory response in cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 43, 924-931
38. Furukawa, S., Fujita, T., Shimabukuro, M. et al. (2004) Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 114, 1752-1761
39. Ouchi, N., Kihara, S., Arita, Y. et al. (2000) Adiponectin, an adipocyte-derived plasma protein, inhibits endothelial NF-κB signaling through a cAMP-dependent pathway. Circulation 102, 1296-1301
40. Wang, Y., Lam, K. S. L., Xu, J. Y. et al. (2005) Adiponectin inhibits cell proliferation by interacting with several growth factors in an oligomerization-dependent manner. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 18341-18347
41. Yokota, T., Oritani, K., Takahashi, I. et al. (2000) Adiponectin, a new member of the family of soluble defense collagens, negatively regulates the growth of myelomonocytic progenitors and the functions of macrophages. Blood 96, 1723-1732
42. Ouchi, N., Kihara, S., Arita, Y. et al. (2001) Adipocyte-derived plasma protein, adiponectin, suppresses lipid accumulation and class A scavenger receptor expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Circulation 103, 1057-1063
43. Yamaguchi, N., Argueta, J. G., Masuhiro, Y. et al. (2005) Adiponectin inhibits Toll-like receptor family-induced signaling. FEBS Lett. 579, 6821-6826
44. Ohashi, K., Iwatani, H., Kihara, S. et al. (2007) Exacerbation of albuminuria and renal fibrosis in subtotal renal ablation model of adiponectin-knockout mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27, 1910-1917
45. Arita, Y., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N. et al. (1999) Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257, 79-83
46. Hotta, K., Funahashi, T., Arita, Y. et al. (2000) Plasma concentrations of a novel, adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in type 2 diabetic patients. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20, 1595-1599
47. Kumada, M., Kihara, S., Sumitsuji, S. et al. (2003) Coronary artery disease. Association of hypoadiponectinemia with coronary artery disease in men. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23, 85-89
48. Tao, L., Gao, E., Jiao, X. et al. (2007) Adiponectin cardioprotection after myocardial ischemia/reperfusion involves the reduction of oxidative/nitrative stress. Circulation 115, 1408-1416
49. Ouchi, N., Kihara, S., Funahashi, T. et al. (2003) Reciprocal association of C-reactive protein with adiponectin in blood stream and adipose tissue. Circulation 207, 671-674
50. Kamada, Y., Tamura, S., Kiso, S. et al. (2003) Enhanced carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in mice lacking adiponectin. Gastroenterology 125, 1796-1807
51. Valle, A., Martos, R., Gascón, F., Cañete, R., Zafra, M. A. and Morales, R. (2005) Low-grade systemic inflammation, hypoadiponectinemia and a high concentration of plasma leptin are present in very young obese children, and correlate with metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Metab. 31, 55-62
52. Ochi, N., Kihara, S., Arita, Y. et al. (1999) Novel modulator for endothelial adhesion molecules: adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin. Circulation 100, 2473-2476
53. Arita, Y., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N. et al. (2002) Adipose-derived plasma protein adiponectin acts as a platelet-derived growth factor-BB-binding protein and regulates growth factor-induced common postreceptor signal in vascular smooth muscle cell. Circulation 105, 2893-2898
54. Ouchi, N., Kihara, S., Arita, Y. et al. (2001) Adipocyte-derived plasma protein, adiponectin, suppresses lipid accumulation and class A scavenger receptor expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Circulation 103, 1057-1063
55. Kumada, M., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N. et al. (2004) Adiponectin specifically increased tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 through interleukin-10 expression in human macrophages. Circulation 109, 2046-2049
56. Neumeier, M., Weigert, J., Schäffler, A. et al. (2006) Different effects of adiponectin isoforms in human monocytic cells. J. Leukocyte Biol. 79, 803-808
57. Yang, W. S., Lee, W. J., Funahashi, T. et al. (2001) Weight reduction increases plasma levels of an adipose-derived anti-inflammatory protein, adiponectin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 3815-3819
58. Esposito, K., Pontillo, A., Di Palo, C. et al. (2003) Effect of weight loss and lifestyle changes on vascular inflammatory markers in obese women: a randomized trial. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 289, 1799-1804
59. Valsamakis, G., McTernan, P. G., Chetty, R. et al. (2004) Modest weight loss and reduction in waist circumference after medical treatment are associated with favorable changes in serum adipocytokines. Metab. Clin. Exp. 53, 430-434
60. Yu, J. G., Javorschi, S., Hevener, A. L. et al. (2002) The effect of thiazolidinediones on plasma adiponectin levels in normal, obese, and type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabetes 51, 2968-2974
61. Hirose, H., Kaqwai, T., Yamamoto, Y. et al. (2002) Effects of pioglitasone on metabolic parameters, body fat distribution and serum adiponectin levels in Japanese male patients with type 2 diabetes. Metab. Clin. Exp. 51, 314-317
62. Phillips, S. A., Ciaraldi, T. P., Kong, A. P. et al. (2003) Modulation of circulating and adipose tissue adiponectin levels by antidiabetic therapy. Diabetes 52, 667-674
63. Yang, W. S. Jeng, C.Y. Wu, T. J. et al. (2002) Synthetic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonist, rosiglitazone, increases plasma levels of adiponectin in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 25, 376-380
64. Tonelli, J., Li,W., Kishore, P. et al. (2004) Mechanisms of early insulin-sensitizing effects of thiazolidinediones in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 53, 1621-1629
65. Bobbert, T., Rochlitz, H., Wegewitz, U. et al. (2005) Changes of adiponectin oligomer composition by moderate weight reduction. Diabetes 54, 2712-2719
66. Pajvani, U. B., Hawkins, M., Combs, T. P. et al. (2004) Complex distribution, not absolute amount of adiponectin, correlates with thiazolidinedione-mediated improvement in insulin sensitivity. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 12152-12162
67. Furuhashi, M., Ura, N., Higashiura, K. et al. (2003) Blockade of the renin-angiotensin system increases adiponectin concentrations in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 42, 76-82
68. Koh, K., Quon, M., Han, S. et al. (2005) Vascular and metabolic effects of combined therapy with ramipril and simvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Hypertension 45, 1088-1093
69. Koh, K., Quon, M., Han, S. et al. (2004) Additive beneficial effects of losartan combined with simvastatin in the treatment of hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients. Circulation 110, 3687-3692
70. Koh, K., Quon, M., Han, S., Chung, W. J., Lee, Y. and Shin, E. K. (2005) Anti-inflammatory and metabolic effects of candesartan in hypertensive patients. Int. J. Cardiol. 108, 96-100
71. Shmieder, R., Schlaich, M., Mimran, A., Fauvel, J. P. and Ruilope, L. M. (2006) The cytokine adiponectin is disparately influenced by telmisartan and ramipril in type 2 diabetes. J. Hypertens. 24 (Suppl. 6), 225
72. Fogari, R., Derosa, G., Mugellini, A. et al. (2006) Effect of valsartan and eprosartan on adiponectin, leptin and insulin sensitivity in hypertensive obese patients. J. Hypertens. 24 (Suppl. 6), 258
73. Nowak, L., Adamczak, M. and Wiecek, A. (2005) Blockade of sympathetic nervous system activity by rilmenidine increases plasma adiponectin concentration in patients with essential hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 18, 1470-1475
74. Koh, K., Quon, M., Han, S. et al. (2005) Additive beneficial effects of fenofibrate combined with atorvastatin in the treatment of combined hyperlipidemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 1649-1653
75. Despres, J. P., Golay, A. and Sjostrom, L. (2005) Effects of rimonabant on metabolic risk factors in overweight patients with dyslipidemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 2121-2134
76. Kougias, P., Chai, H., Lin, P. H. et al. (2005) Effects of adipocyte derived cytokines on endothelial functions: implication of vascular disease. J. Surg. Res. 126, 121-129
77. Beltowski, J. (2006) Leptin and atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 189, 47-60
78. Rahmouni, K. and Haynes, W. G. (2005) Endothelial effects of leptin: implications in health and diseases. Curr. Diabetes Rep. 5, 260-266
79. Kotani, K., Sakane, N., Saiga, K. and Kurozawa, Y. (2005) Leptin:adiponectin ratio as an atherosclerotic index in patients with type 2 diabetes: relationship of the index to carotid intima-media thickness. Diabetologia 48, 2684-2686
80. Fruehwald-Schultes, B., Kern, W., Beyer, J. et al. (1998) Serum leptin levels in young females with insulin-dependent diabetes and the relationship to hyperandrogenicity and microalbuminuria. Horm. Res. 50, 297-302
81. Rudberg, S. and Persson, B. (1999) Elevated serum leptin concentration in type 2 diabetes microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria. Metab. Clin. Exp. 48, 1290-1293
82. Wilson, C., Nelson, R., Nicolson, M. et al. (1998) Plasma leptin concentrations: no difference between Pima Indians with and without nephropathy. Diabetologia 41, 861-862
83. Wolf, G. and Ziyadeh, F. N. (2006) Leptin and renal fibrosis. Contrib. Nephrol. 151, 175-183
84. Banerjee, R. R., Rangwala, S. M., Shapiro, J. S. et al. (2004) Regulation of fasted blood glucose by resistin. Science 303, 1195-1198
85. Reilly, M. P., Lehrke, M., Wolfe, M. L. et al. (2005) Resistin is an inflammatory marker of atherosclerosis in humans. Circulation 111, 932-939
86. Burnett, M. S., Lee, C.W., Kinnaird, T. D. et al. (2005) The potential role of resistin in atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis 182, 241-248
87. Kougias, P., Chai, H., Lin, P. H. et al. (2005) Adipocyte-derived cytokine resistin causes endothelial dysfunction of porcine coronary arteries. J. Vasc. Surg. 41, 691-698
88. Dick, G. M., Katz, P. S., Farias, III, M. et al. (2006) Resistin impairs endothelium-dependent dilation to bradykinin, but not acetylcholine, in the coronary circulation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 291, H2997-H3002
89. Verma, S., Li, S. H., Wang, C. H. et al. (2003) Resistin promotes endothelial cell activation: further evidence of adipokine-endothelial interaction. Circulation 108, 736-740
90. Shen, Y. H., Zhang, L., Gan, Y. et al. (2006) Up-regulation of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten) mediates p38 MAPK stress signal-induced inhibition of insulin signaling: a cross-talk between stress signaling and insulin signaling in resistin-treated human endothelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 281, 7727-7736
91. Calabro, P., Samudio, I., Willerson, J. T. and Yeh, E. T. H. (2004) Resistin promotes smooth muscle cell proliferation through activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways. Circulation 110, 3335-3340
92. Medzhitov, R. (2001) Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 1, 135-140
93. Zuany-Amorim, C., Hastewell, J. and Walker, C. (2002) Toll-like receptors as potential therapeutic targets for multiple diseases. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 1, 797-807
94. Kim, J. K., Fillmore, J. J., Sunshine, M. J. et al. (2004) PKC-θ knockout mice are protected from fat-induced insulin resistance. J. Clin. Invest. 114, 823-827
95. Yuan, M., Konstantopoulos, N., Lee, J. et al. (2001) Reversal of obesity- and diet-induced insulin resistance with salicylates or targeted disruption of IKKβ. Science 293, 1673-1677
96. Kim, J. K., Kim, Y. J., Fillmore, J. J. et al. (2001) Prevention of fat-induced insulin resistance by salicylate. J. Clin. Invest. 108, 437-446
97. Hirosumi, J., Tuncman, G., Chang, L. et al. (2002) A central role for JNK in obesity and insulin resistance. Nature 420, 333-336
98. Lee, J. Y., Sohn, K. H., Rhee, S. H. and Hwang, D. (2001) Saturated fatty acids, but not unsaturated fatty acids, induce the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 mediated through Toll-like receptor 4. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 16683-16689
99. Lee, J. Y., Ye, J., Gao, Z. et al. (2003) Reciprocal modulation of Toll-like receptor-4 signaling pathways involving MyD88 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT by saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 37041-37051
100. Hwang, D. (2001) Modulation of the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 by fatty acids mediated through Toll-like receptor 4-derived signaling pathways. FASEB J. 15, 2556-2564
101. Anders, H. J., Banas, B. and Schlöndorff, D. (2004) Signaling danger: Toll-like receptors and their potential roles in kidney diseases. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15, 854-867
102. Anders, H. J. and Schlöndorff, D. (2007) Toll-like receptors: emerging concepts in kidney disease. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 16, 177-183
103. Pawar, R. D., Patole, P. S., Zecher, D. et al. (2006) Toll-like receptor-7 modulates immune complex glomerulonephritis. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 141-149
104. Goldstein, D. R., Tesar, B. M., Akira, S. and Lakkis, F. G. (2003) Critical role of the Toll-like receptor signal adaptor protein MyD88 in acute allograft rejection. J. Clin. Invest. 111, 1571
105. Tsuboi, N., Yoshikai, Y., Matsuo, S. et al. (2002) Roles of toll-like receptors in C-C chemokine production by renal tubular epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 169, 2026-2033
106. Tipping, P. G. and Holdsworth, S. R. (2003) T cells in glomerulonephritis. Semin. Immunopathol. 24, 377-393
107. Kluth, D. C., Erwig, L. P. and Rees, A. J. (2004) Multiple facets of macrophages in renal injury. Kidney Int. 66, 542-557
108. Segerer, S. and Alpers, C. E. (2003) Chemokines and chemokine receptors in renal pathology. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 12, 243-249
109. Chow, F., Nikolic-Paterson, D. J., Ozols, E. et al. (2006) Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 promotes the development of diabetic renal injury in streptozotocin-treated mice. Kidney Int. 69, 73-80
110. Tashiro, K., Koyanagi, I., Saitoh, A. et al. (2002) Urinary levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) and renal injuries in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 16, 1-4
111. Chiarelli, F. Cipollone, F. Mohn, A. et al. (2002) Circulating monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and early development of nephropathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 25, 1829-1834
112. Morii, T. Fujita, H. Narita, T. et al. (2003) Association of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 with renal tubular damage in diabetic nephropathy. J. Diabetic Complications 17, 11-15
113. Takebayashi, K., Matsumoto, S., Aso, Y. and Inukai, T. (2006) Association between circulating monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and urinary albumin excretion in nonobese type 2 diabetic patients. J. Diabetic Complications 20, 98-104
114. Kanamori, H., Matsubara, T., Mima, A. et al. (2007) Inhibition of MCP-1/ CCR2 pathway ameliorates the development of diabetic nephropathy. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 360, 772-777
115. Amann, R., Tinzmann, R. and Angelkort, B. (2003) ACE inhibitors improve diabetic nephropathy through suppression of renal MCP-1. Diabetes Care 26, 2421-2425
116. Han, S. Y., Kim, C. H., Kim, H. S. et al. (2006) Spironolactone prevents diabetic nephropathy through an anti-inflammatory mechanism in type 2 diabetic rats. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17, 1362-1372
117. Takebayashi, K., Matsumoto, S., Aso, Y. and Inukai, T. (2006) Aldosterone blockade attenuates urinary monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes complicated by diabetic nephropathy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 2214-2217
118. Zhang, Z., Yuan, W., Sun, L. et al. (2007) 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 targeting of NF-κB suppresses high glucose-induced MCP-1 expression in mesangial cells. Kidney Int. 72, 193-201
119. Matsui, H., Suzuki, M., Tsukuda, R. et al. (1996) Expression of ICAM-1 on glomeruli is associated with rogression of diabetic nephropathy in a genetically obese diabetic rat, Wistar fatty. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 32, 1-9
120. Coimbra, T. M., Janssen, U., Grone, H. J. et al. (2000) Early events leading to renal injury in obese Zucker (fatty) rats with type II diabetes. Kidney Int. 57, 167-182
121. Okada, S., Shikata, K., Matsuda, M. et al. (2003) Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 deficient mice are resistant against renal injury after induction of diabetes. Diabetes 52, 2586-2593
122. Chow, F. Y., Nikolic-Paterson, D. J., Ozols, E. et al. (2005) Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 deficiency is protective against nephropathy in type 2 diabetic db/db mice. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol 16, 1711-1722
123. Clausen, P., Jacobsen, P., Rossing, K. et al. (2000) Plasma concentrations of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 are elevated in patients with type1 diabetes mellitus with microalbuminuria and overt nephropathy. Diabetic Med. 17, 644-649
124. Guler, S., Cakir, B., Demirbas, B. et al. (2002) Plasma soluble intercellular adhesion molecules 1 levels are increased in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Horm. Res. 58, 67-70
125. Ulbrich, H., Eriksson, E. E. and Lindbom, L., (2003) Leukocyte and endothelial cell adhesion molecules as targets for therapeutic interventions in inflammatory disease. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24, 640-647
126. Anderson, M. E. and Siahaan, T. J. (2003) Targeting ICAM-1/LFA-1 interaction for controlling autoimmune diseases: designing peptide and small molecule inhibitors. Peptides 24, 487-501
127. Ina, K., Kitamura, H., Okeda, T. et al. (1999) Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in the renal interstitium of diabetic KKAy mice. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 44, 1-8
128. Lim, S. C., Caballero, A. E., Smakowski, P., LoGerfo, F. W., Horton, E. S. and Veves, A. (1999) Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule, vascular cell adhesion molecule, and impaired microvascular reactivity are early markers of vasculopathy in type 2 diabetic individuals without microalbuminuria. Diabetes Care 22, 1865-1870
129. Schmidt, A. M., Crandall, J., Hori, O., Cao, R. and Lakatta, E. (1996) Elevated plasma levels of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in diabetic patients with microalbuminuria: a marker of vascular dysfunction and progressive vascular disease. Br. J. Haematol. 92, 747-750
130. Stehouwer, C. D. A., Gall, M. A., Twisk, J.W. R., Knudsen, E., Emeis, J. J. and Parving, H. H. (2002) Increased urinary albumin excretion, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic low-grade inflammation in type 2 diabetes: progressive, interrelated, and independently associated with risk of death. Diabetes 51, 1157-1165
131. Reference deleted
132. Hasegawa, G., Nakano, K., Sawada, M. et al. (1991) Possible role of tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 in the development of diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int. 40, 1007-1012
133. Hasegawa, G., Nakano, K. and Kondo, M. (1995) Role of TNF and IL-1 in the development of diabetic nephropathy. Nefrologia 15, 1-4
134. Nakamura, T., Fukui, M., Ebihara, I. et al. (1993) mRNA expression of growth factors in glomeruli of diabetic rats. Diabetes 42, 450-456
135. Sugimoto, H., Shikata, K., Wada, J. et al. (1999) Advanced glycation end products-cytokine-nitric oxide sequence pathway in the development of diabetic nephropathy: aminoguanidine ameliorates the overexpression of tumour necrosis factor α and inducible nitric oxide synthase in diabetic rat glomeruli. Diabetologia 42, 878-886
136. Sassy-Prigent, C., Heudes, D., Jouquey, S. et al. (2000) Early glomerular macrophage recruitment in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.Diabetes 49, 466-475
137. Navarro, J. F., Milena, F. J., Mora, C., León, C. and García, J. (2006) Renal pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression in diabetic nephropathy: effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and pentoxifylline administration. Am. J. Nephrol. 26, 562-570
138. Royall, J. A., Berkow, R. L., Beckman, J. S. et al. (1989) Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 1 increase vascular endothelial permeability. Am. J. Physiol. 257, L339-L410
139. Pfeilschfer, J., Pignat, W., Vosbeck, K. and Märki, F. (1989) Interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor synergistically stimulate prostaglandin synthesis and phospholipase A2 release from rat renal mesangial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 159, 385-394
140. Suzuki, D., Miyazaki, M., Naka, R. et al. (1995) In situ hybridization of interleukin 6 in diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 44, 1233-1238
141. Dalla Vestra, M., Mussap, M., Gallina, P. et al. (2005) Acute-phase markers of inflammation and glomerular structure in patients with type 2 diabetes. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, S78-S82
142. Pecoits-Filho, R., Heimburger, O., Lindholm, B., Bárány, B. and Stenvinkel, P. (2002) Interleukin-6 system is associated with renal function in end-stage renal disease. Blood Purif. 20, 511
143. Horii, Y., Iwano, M., Hirata, E. et al. (1993) Role of interleukin-6 in the progression of mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 39 (Suppl.), S71-S75
144. Buraczynska, M., Jozwiak, L., Ksiazek, P., Borowicz, E. and Mierzicki, P. (2007) Interleukin-6 gene polymorphism and faster progression to end-stage renal failure in chronic glomerulonephritis. Transl. Res. 150, 101-105
145. Moriwaki, Y., Yamamoto, T., Shibutani, Y. et al. (2003) Elevated levels of interleukin-18 and tumor necrosis factor-α in serum of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: relationship with diabetic nephropathy. Metab. Clin. Exp. 52, 605-608
146. Nakamura, A., Shikata, K., Hiramatsu, M. et al. (2005) Serum interleukin-18 levels are associated with nephropathy and atherosclerosis in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28, 2890-2895
147. Araki, S., Haneda, M. and Koya, D. et al (2007) Predictive impact of elevated serum level of IL-18 for early renal dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: an observational follow-up study. Diabetologia 50, 867-873
148. Navarro, J. F., Milena, F., Mora, C. et al. (2005) Tumor necrosis factor-α gene expression in diabetic nephropathy: relationship with urinary albumin excretion and effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. Kidney Int. 68, S98-S102
149. Bertani, T., Abbate, M., Zoja, C. et al. (1989) Tumor necrosis factor induces glomerular damage in rabbit. Am. J. Pathol. 134, 419-430
150. Baud, L. and Ardaillou, R. (1995) Tumor necrosis factor in renal injury. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 21, 336-341
151. Kalantarinia, K., Awas, A. S. and Siragy, H. M. (2003) Urinary and renal interstitial concentrations of TNF-α increase prior to the rise in albuminuria in diabetic rats. Kidney Int. 64, 1208-1213
152. Dipetrillo, K., Coutermarsh, B. and Gesek, F. A. (2003) Urinary tumor necrosis factor contributes to sodium retention and renal hypertrophy during diabetes. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 284, F113-F121
153. Ishikura, H., Takahashi. C., Kanagawa. K. et al. (1991) Cytokine regulation of ICAM-1 expression on human renal tubular epithelial cells in vitro. Transplantation 51, 1272-1275
154. McCarthy, E., Sharma, R., Sharma, M. et al. (1998) TNF-α increases albumin permeability of isolated rat glomeruli through the generation of superoxide. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 9, 433-438
155. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Rivero, A. et al. (1999) Urinary protein excretion and serum tumor necrosis factor in diabetic patients with advanced renal failure: effects of pentoxifylline administration. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 33, 458-463
156. Ruiz-Ortega, M. Rupérez, M., Lorenzo, O. et al. (2002) Angiotensin II regulates the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the kidney. Kidney Int. 82, S12-S22
157. Ferreri, N. R., Escalante, B. A., Zhao, Y., An, S.-J. and McGiff, J. C. (1998) Angiotensin II induces TNF production by the thick ascending limb: functional implications. Am. J. Physiol. 274, F148-F155
158. Yokoyama, T., Sekiguchi, K., Tanaka, T. et al. (1999) Angiotensin II and mechanical stretch induce production of tumor necrosis factor in cardiac fibroblasts. Am. J. Physiol. 276, H1968-H1976
159. Han, J., Thompson, P. and Beutler, D. (1990) Dexamethasone and pentoxifylline inhibit endotoxin-induced cachectin/tumor necrosis factor synthesis at separate points in the signaling pathway. J. Exp. Med. 172, 391-394
160. Doherty, G. M., Jensen, J. C., Alexander, H. R. et al. (1991) Pentoxifylline suppression of tumor necrosis factor gene transcription. Surgery 110, 192-198
161. Segal, R., Dayan, M., Zinger, H. and Mozes, E. (2001) Suppression of experimental systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) in mice via TNF inhibition by an anti-TNFα monoclonal antibody and by pentoxifylline. Lupus 10, 23-31
162. Chen, Y. M., Ng, Y. Y., Lin, S. L. et al. (2004) Pentoxifylline suppresses renal tumour necrosis factor-α and ameliorates experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis in rats. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 19, 1106-1115
163. Chen, Y. M., Chien, C. T., Hu-Tsai, M. I. et al. (1999) Pentoxifylline attenuates experimental mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int. 56, 932-943
164. Lin, S. L., Chen, Y. M., Chien, C. T. et al. (2002) Pentoxifylline attenuated the renal disease progression in rats with remnant kidney. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13, 2916-2929
165. DiPetrillo, K. and Gesek, F. A. (2004) Pentoxifylline ameliorates renal tumor necrosis factor expression, sodium retention and renal hypertrophy in diabetic rats. Am. J. Nephrol. 24, 352-359
166. Guerrero-Romero, F., Rodríguez-Morán, M., Paniagua-Sierra, J. et al. (1995) Pentoxifylline reduces proteinuria in insulin-dependent and non-dependent diabetic patients. Clin. Nephrol. 43, 116-121
167. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Muros, M. et al. (2003) Effects of pentoxifylline administration on urinary N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase excretion in type 2 diabetic patients: a short-term, prospective, randomised study. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 42, 264-270
168. Harmankaya, O., Seber, S. and Yilmaz, M. (2003) Combination of pentoxifylline with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors produces an additional reduction in microalbuminuria in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients. Renal Failure 25, 465-470
169. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Muros, M. and García, J. (2005) Additive antiproteinuric effect of pentoxifylline in patients with type 2 diabetes under angiotensin II receptor blockade: a short term, randomised, controlled trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 16, 2119-2126
170. Chen, Y. M., Lin, S. L., Chiang, W. C. et al. (2006) Pentoxifylline ameliorates proteinuria through suppression of renal monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in patients with proteinuric primary glomerular diseases. Kidney Int. 69, 1410-1415
171. Gewurz, H., Zhang, X. H. and Lint, T. F. (1995) Structure and function of the pentraxins. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 7, 54-64
172. Fearon, D. T. and Locksley, R. M. (1996) The instructive role of innate immunity in the acquired immune response. Science 272, 50-53
173. Medzhitov, R. and Janeway, Jr, C. A. (1997) Innate immunity: impact on the adaptive immune response. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 9, 4-9
174. Steel, D. M. and Whitehead, A. S. (1994) The major acute phase reactants: C-reactive protein, serum amyloid component and serum amyloid A protein. Immunol. Today 15, 81-88
175. Mortensen, R. (1994) Macrophages and acute-phase proteins. In Macrophage-Pathogen Interactions (Zwilling, B. and Eisenstein, T., eds.), pp. 143-158, Marcel Decker, New York
176. Ridker, P. M., Rifai, N., Rose, L., Buring, J. E. and Cook, N. R. (2002) Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1557-1565
177. Kuller, L. H., Tracy, R. P., Shaten, J. and Meilahn, E. N. (1996) Relation of C-reactive protein and coronary heart disease in the MRFIT nested case control study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144, 537-547
178. Folsom, A. R., Aleksic, N., Catellier, D., Juneja, H. S. and Wu, K. K. (2002) C-reactive protein and incident coronary heart disease in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Am. Heart J. 144, 233-238
179. Ridker, P. M., Buring, J. E., Shih, J., Matias, M. and Hennekens, C. H. (1998) Prospective study of C-reactive protein and the risk of future cardiovascular events among apparently healthy women. Circulation 98, 731-733
180. Koenig, W., Sund, M., Frohlich, M. et al. (1999) C-reactive protein, a sensitive marker of inflammation, predicts future risk of coronary heart disease in initially healthy middle-aged men: results from the MONICA (Monitoring Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease) Augsburg Cohort Study, 1984 to 1992. Circulation 99, 237-242
181. Tsigos, C., Papanicolaou, D. A., Kyrou, I., Defensor, R., Mitsiadis, C. S. and Chrousos, G. P. (1997) Dose-dependent effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on glucose regulation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 4167-4170
182. Pickup, J. C., Mattock, M. B., Chusney, G. D. and Burt, D. (1997) NIDDM as a disease of the innate immune system: association of acute-phase reactants and interleukin-6 with metabolic syndrome X. Diabetologia 40, 1286-1292
183. Festa, A., D'Agostino, Jr, R., Howard, G., Mykkanen, L., Tracy, R. P. and Haffner, S. M. (2000) Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation 102, 42-47
184. Frohlich, M., Imhof, A., Berg, G. et al. (2000) Association between C-reactive protein and features of the metabolic syndrome: a population-based study. Diabetes Care 23, 1835-1839
185. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Macia, M. and Garcia, J. (2003) Inflammatory parameters are independently associated with urinary albumin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 42, 53-61
186. Navarro, J. F., Mora, C., Muros, M. and García, J. (2006) Urinary tumour necrosis factor-α excretion independently correlates with clinical markers of glomerular and tubulointerstitial injury in type 2 diabetic patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 21, 3428-3434
187. Navarro-González, J. F. and Mora-Fernández, C. (2008) The role of inflammatory cytokines in diabetic nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 19, 433-442
188. Sydow, K. and Münzel, T. (2003) Diabetes mellitus, oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction. Int. Congr. Ser. 1253, 125-138
189. Hunjoo, H. and Lee, H. B. (2001) Oxidative stress in diabetic nephropathy: basic and clinical information. Current Diabetes Rep. 3, 282-287