Between Empire and home town: Napoleonic rule on the Rhine, 1799-1814

Historical Journal

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 643-674

  Rowe, Michael ^a  

^a NUFFIELD COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 64949197549     PISSN: 0018246X     EISSN: 14695103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X9900850X     Document Type: Article

References (208)

1. Thomas R. Kraus, Auf dem Weg in die Moderne. Aachen in französischer Zeit 1792/93, 1794-1814. Handbuch-Katalog zur Ausstellung im' Krönungssaal' des Aachener Rathauses vom 14. Januar bis zum 5. März 1995 (Aachen, 1995), p. 528.
2. Karl Georg Faber, 'Die kommunale Selbstverwaltung in der Rheinprovinz im 19. Jahrhundert, Rheinische Vierteljahrsblätter, 30 (1965), p. 136.
3. Johann Benzenberg, Wünsche und Hoffnungen eines Rheinländers (Paris, 1815), p. 14.
4. J. H. Clapham, The Abbé Siéyès: an essay in the politics of the French Revolution (London, 1912), p. 241.
5. er et l'organisation authoritaire de la France (Paris, 1956), p. 47.
6. Napoleon to his brother Lucien (then minister of the interior), 25 Dec. 1799, quoted from J. M. Thompson, Napoleon's letters (London and New York, 1954), p. 83).
7. Jacques Godechot, ed., Les constitutions de la France depuis 1789 (Paris, 1970), pp. 157-8.
8. Louis Bergeron, L'épisode napoléonien, I: Aspects intérieurs, 1799-1815 (Paris, 1972).
9. Jean Tulard, Napoleon: the myth of the saviour (London, 1984), p. 239.
10. For the centralizing and bureaucratic tendencies of the enlightened officials who extended French power across the continent, see Stuart Woolf, Napoleon's integration of Europe (London and New York, 1991), pp. 83-132.
11. Amongst the recent literature in English, see Matthew Ramsey, Professional and popular midicine in France, 1770-1830 (Oxford, 1988);
12. Alan Forrest, Conscripts and deserters: the army and society during the Revolution and Empire (Oxford, 1989);
13. and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: transformations of the French civic order, 1780-1820s (New York and London, 1994).
14. Wolfram Siemann, Vom Staatenbund zum Nationalstaat: Deutschland, 1806-1871 (Munich, 1995), P. 17.
15. Stein Rokkan and Derek Urwin, Economy, territory, identity: politics of West European peripheries (London, 1983), p. 27.
16. Wilhelm Fabricius, Erläuterungen zum geschichltichen Atlas der Rheinprovinz, II: Die Karte von 1789. Einteilung und Entwicklung der Territorien von 1600-1794 (Bonn, 1898);
17. Franz Irsigler, Herrschaftsgebiete im Jahre 1789 (Cologne, 1982).
18. John G. Gagliardo, Reich and nation: the Holy Roman Empire as idea and reality, 1763-1806 (Bloomington, 1980), pp. 42-3.
19. My translation. Jacques Godechot, 'Sens et importance de la transformation des institutions revolutionnaires à l'époque napoléonienne', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 17 (1970), P. 795.
20. T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolution in Germany, 1792-1802 (Oxford, 1983), p. 84.
21. The departments were, from north to south, the Roër (whose chef-lieu was Aachen), Rhin-et-Moselle (Koblenz), Sarre (Trier), and Mont-Tonnerre (Mainz). For Rudler's order of 23 January 1798 establishing these departments, and further sub-dividing them into cantons and communes, see Karl Theodor Friedrich Bormann and Alexander von Daniels, eds., Handbuch der für die königlich-preußischen Rheinprovinzen verkündigten Gesetze, Verordnungen und Regierungsbeschlüsse aus der Zeit der Fremdherrschaft (8 vols. Cologne, 1833-45), VI, PP. 466-518.
22. 1bII, Roër 1, nos. [69-70, 72].
23. Joseph Hansen, Quellen zur Geschichte des Rheinlandes im Zeitalter der französischen Revolution 1780-1801 (4 vols., Bonn, 1931-8), IV, pp. 1268-70, 1274.
24. AN, 29 AP 75, no. 182.
25. 1cIII Roër 4, 1, nos. 92-3.
26. Karl-Georg Faber, 'Verwaltungs-und Justizbeamte auf dem linken Rheinufer während der Französischen Herrschaft. Eine personengeschichtliche Studie', in Aus Geschichte und Landeskunde. Forschungen und Darstellungen. Fritz Steinbach zum 65. Geburtstag gewidmet (Bonn, 1960), pp. 371-3.
27. Neue Deutsche Biographie (Berlin, 1953-), VI, pp. 532-6,
28. and Hansen, Quellen, IV, pp. 1216-23, 1247.
29. See also Esther-Beate Körber, Görres und die Revolution. Wandlungen ihres Begriffes und ihrer Wertung in seinem politischen Weltbild 1793-1819 (Husum, 1986).
30. Roger Dufraisse, 'Les notables de la rive gauche du Rhin à l'époque napoléonienne', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 18 (1970), p. 769.
31. A related debate, concerning continuity between the revolutionary movements of the 1790s and those of 1848-9, also points to greater continuity in the south than in the north. Helmut Haasis, Morgenröte der Republik. Die linksrheinischen deutschen Demokraten 1789-1849 (Frankfurt a. M., Berlin, and Vienna, 1984), pp. 205-35
32. and Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland radicals: the democratic movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 93-4.
33. The rest of the paragraph is based on the lists and biographical sketches of grands notables in Roger Dufraisse, 'Sarre', 'Mont-Tonnerre', 'Rhin-et-Moselle', and 'Roër', in Louis Bergeron and Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret, eds., Grands notables du premier empire (Paris, 1978.), III, pp. 45-154.
34. The two were Franz Macke, appointed mayor of Mainz in 1806, and Karl Petersen, subprefect of Kaiserslautern from 1800-1811.
35. Marcel Erkens, Die französische Friedensgerichtsbarkeit 1789-1814 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der vier rheinischen Departments (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 1994), pp. 190-1
36. and Sabine Graumann, Französische Verwaltung am Niederrhein. Das Roërdepartement 1798-1814 (Essen, 1990), pp. 203-4.
37. For the older view that republicans dominated the judiciary, see Hansen, Quellen, IV, p. 547.
38. Geoffrey Ellis, 'Rhine and Loire: Napoleonic elites and social order', in G. Lewis and C. Lucas, eds., Beyond the Terror: essays in French regional and social history, 1704-1815 (Cambridge, 1983). p. 246.
39. See especially F. Bluche, Le Bonapartisme: aux origines de la droite autoritaire, 1800-1850 (Paris, 198o).
40. For an accessible, concise, and recent account of the development of the concept of'social notability' in Napoleonic France see Geoffrey Ellis, Napoleon (London and New York, 1997), pp. 129-32.
41. Michael Broers, 'Revolution as vendetta: patriotism in Piedmont, 1794-1821', Historical Journal, 33 (1990), pp. 573-4.
42. Christof Dipper, 'Der rheinische Adel zwischen Revolution und Restauration', in Helmuth Feigl and Willibald Rosner, eds., Adel im Wandel, Vorträge und Diskussionen des elften Symposions des Niederö sterreichischen Instituts für Landeskunde, Horn, 2-5 Juli 1990 (Vienna, 1991), p. 100.
43. Roger Dufraisse, 'De quelques conséquences économiques et sociales de la domination française sur les régions du Rhin inférieur 1794-1814', in Peter Hüttenberger and Hansgeorg Molitor, eds., Franzosen und Deutsche am Rhein 1789-1918-1945 (Essen, 1989), pp. 134-6.
44. Dipper, 'Adel', p. 94.
45. Wolfgang Schieder, ed., Säkularisation und Mediatisierung in den vier rheinischen Departements 1803-1813. Edition des Datenmaterials zu veräuβernden Nationalgüter (5 vols., Boppard am Rhein, 1991), I, pp. 28-9, 188-90.
46. Horst Carl, Okkupation und Regionalismus: die preussischen Westprovinzen im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Mainz, 1993), pp. 412-16.
47. Johann Adolf Kopstadt, Ueber Kleve. In Briefen an einen Freund aus den Jahren 1811 und 1814 (Frankfurt a. M., 1822), pp. 9-11, 21-2.
48. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (56 vols., Leipzig, 1875-1912), XXXIV, pp. 45-8.
49. Dufraisse, 'Notables', pp. 765-7.
50. Faber, 'Verwaltungs-und Justizbeamte', p. 375.
51. Dufraisse, 'Notables', pp. 762-3.
52. Ibid., p. 768.
53. Horst Dippel, 'Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des sozialen Aufstiegs im Napoleonischen Rheinland. Die Maires des Arrondissement Köln, 1801-1813', Zeitschrift für historische Forschung, 18 (1991), p. 213.
54. For this, and military exploitation generally, see Blanning, Revolution, pp. 83-134.
55. These four biographical sketches of grands notables in the Sarre are taken from Dufraisse, 'Sarre', pp. 50, 52-3, 55, 60.
56. en Dauchy, Conseiler d'État' (15 Apr. 1803)).
57. Recueil des actes de la préfecture de la Roër (11 vols., Aachen, 1803-13), 1, pp. 9-12.
58. Gazette nationale ou le moniteur universel, 305 (24 July 1804).
59. Anton Keil, Handbuch für Maire und Adjuncten, für Polizey-Commissare, Gemeinde-Räthe, Steuer-Empfänger und Vertheiler, Spital-und Armenverwalter, Pfarrer, Kirchenräther und Kirchenmeister, Feld-und Forsthüter. Zweyte ganz umgearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage (2 vols., Cologne, 1811-13), I, pp. 67-8.
60. Susan Bradley and Alfred Fierro, eds., Archives biographiques françaises: fusion dans un ordre alphabétique unique de 180 des plus importantes ouvrages de référence biographiques (London, 1988), microfiche no. 589, 317-41. Lameth followed up his stint in the Rhin-et-Moselle and Roër departments with a period in Turin as prefect of the Po department. He finished his days as a liberal deputy under Louis XVIII and Charles X.
61. 1bI 80, dossier 'Roër', [13, 11].
62. For the seating plan itself, see ibid., [14].
63. For the gendarmerie, see Hansen, Quellen, IV, pp. 521 n. 2, 959 n. 3;
64. for the direction des douanes, see Roger Dufraisse, 'La contrebande dans les departements réunis de la rive gauche du Rhin à l'époque napoléonienne', Francia, 1 (1973), p. 523
65. and Graumann, Verwaltung, pp. 126-9;
66. for the direction du recouvrement des impositions directes, régie de l'enregistrement et des domaines nationaux, and régie des droits réunis, see Graumann, Verwaltung, pp. 112-25.
67. Faber, 'Verwaltungs-und Justizbeamte', p. 359.
68. During the Directory, about half of the bureaucrats within the central ministries originated from the Paris region. Clive Church, 'The social basis of the French central bureaucracy under the Directory, 1795-1799', Past and Present, 36 (1967), p. 63.
69. For the distinction between the politically vulnerable elites active in Paris and the immutable provincial 'notables', and their different social origins, see Ellis, 'Rhine and Loire', pp. 239-46.
70. Belderbusch in the Oise department, Birnbaum in Forêts, Keverberg in Ems-Supérieur, and Haw in l'Aube.
71. 1bII Roër 3, dossier 'Mylius'), and Stengel, who served as government commissioner of the Main Kreis in the kingdom of Bavaria. Marcel Dunan, Napoléon et l'Allemagne: le système continental et les débuts du royaume de Bavière 1806-1810 (Paris, 1942), p. 83.
72. Edward A. Whitcomb, 'Napoleon's prefects', American Historical Review, 79 (1974), pp. 1098-9.
73. Dufraisse, 'Notables', p. 760.
74. 1cIII Foër 4, no. 318.
75. Karl-Georg Faber, Andreas van Recum, 1765-1828: ein rheinischer Kosmopolit (Bonn, 1969), p. 8.
76. Ibid, p. 115.
77. Ibid., pp. 11-13.
78. For the Protestant business elite of the lower Rhine see Jeffry M. Diefendorf, Businessmen and politics in the Rhineland, 1789-1834 (Princeton, 1980).
79. Gustav Mücke, 'Die geschichtliche Stellung des Arrondissements und seines Verwalters zur Zeit der napoleonischen Herrschaft, dargestellt an dem Leben und Wirken Karl Ludwig von Keverbergs als Unterpräfekt in Cleve' (D. Phil., Bonn, 1935).
80. Blanning, Revolution, pp. 289-300.
81. N. S. Wraskaja, A. G. F. Rebmann. Leben und Werke eines Publizisten zur Zeit der grossen französischen Revolution (Heidelberg, 1907), pp. 141-55.
82. Karl-Georg Faber, Die Rheinlande zwischen Restauration und Revolution. Probleme der Rheinischen Geschichte von 1814 bis 1848 im Spiegel der zeitgenössichen Publizistik (Wiesbaden, 1966), pp. 48-52.
83. Erkens, Friedensgerichtsbarkeit, pp. 186-7.
84. For a contemporary, anonymous source, see: Histoire de Schinderhannes et autres brigands dit garrotteurs ou chauffeurs, qui ont désolé les deux rives du Rhin et la Belgique, pendant les dernières années de la Révolution; rédigée d'après les pièces juridiques publiées en allemand par deux magistrals (Paris, 1810).
85. Dufraisse, 'Contrebande', pp. 515, 525, 528-34,
86. and, for the customs tribunals set up in 1810, Graumann, Verwaltung, pp. 198-9.
87. Graumann, Venwaltung, p. 196.
88. Hauptstaatsarchiv Düsseldorf (HStAD), Oberpräsidium Köln, 1534.
89. Fritz Vollheim, Die provisorische Venwaltung am Nieder-und Mittelrhein waährend der Jahre 1814-1816 (Bonn, 1912), pp. 24-8.
90. Ernst Landsberg, ed., Die Gutachten der Rheinischen-Immediat-Justiz- Kommission und der Kampf um die rheinische Rechts-und Gerichtsverfassung, 1814-1819 (Bonn, 1914), pp. vi, xxx-xxxiii, lxiii, lxxi, ci.
91. Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815 (London, 1996), p. 55.
92. Graumann, Verwaltung, pp. 112-13.
93. For the view that the abolition of the cantonal administrations resulted in relative decentralization, see Isser Woloch, 'The state and the villages in revolutionary France', in Alan Forrest and Peter Jones, eds., Reshaping France: town, country and region during the French Revolution (Manchester, 1991), p. 233
94. and Woloch, New Regime, pp. 142-3.
95. For the opposite argument, see Broers, Europe, pp. 66-7, 69-71.
96. To employ the imagery of Broers, Europe, p. 55.
97. Interesting comments on both are to be found in a report drawn up under the Prussians in 1815. HStAD, Oberpräsidium Köln, 1534, nos. 13, 14, 16.
98. 1bII Roër 3.
99. Ladoucette to Klespe, 17 Jan. 1811. HStAD, Roër dept 3009, nos. 56-7.
100. 1bII Roër 3, dossier 'Sous préfet de Clèves'.
101. Faber, Recum, pp. 100-1, 104-5.
102. Ibid., pp. 111-12.
103. 1cIII Roër I, nos. 141-2.
104. 1cIII Roër 2, no. 49.
105. Ernest d'Hauterive, ed., La police secrète du Premier Empire: bulletins quotidiens adressés par Fcuché à l'empereur, 1804-1810 (5 vols., Paris, 1908-64), v, p. 290 (report of 9 Jan. 1810).
106. III Roër 2, no. 47.
107. Prefectoral circular (Roër), 5 Jan. 1801. HStAD, Roër dept 1520, no. 19.
108. See also the prefectoral circular of 6 Oct. 1802. Recueil (1803), p. 23.
109. 1bII Roër 3, 'Liste des maires et adjoints à la nomination du Préfet (1807) ';
110. Almanach départmental de la Roër pour l'année 1806 (Aachen, 1806);
111. Almanack du départment de la Roër pour l'année 1808 (Aachen, 1808);
112. 1cIII Roër 1.
113. The sale of biens nationaux in the Rhineland is well documented in Schieder, Säkularisation. The main source used for this gargantuan survey is the auction records for biens nationaux. These give information on both the value and nature of the property sold, and on the buyer. The first names of twenty-two of the maires were absent either from the annual lists of officials or the auction records, and so cannot be identified with any certainty.
114. Dufraisse, 'Roër', pp. 122-54. Dufraisse confuses Heinrich Joseph von Wittgenstein with his younger brother, Johann Jacob. The latter served as maire of Cologne, whilst the former appeared on the list of grands notables.
115. Graumann, Verwaltung, p. 90.
116. To again quote Broers, Europe, pp. 51-2.
117. For the socio-economic decline of the small craftsmen who made up the guilds of Cologne, their political exclusion, and the rise of big business in the Napoleonic period, see Wilfried Feldenkirchen, 'Aspekte der Bevolkerungs-und Sozialstruktur der Stadt Köln in der Franzosischen Zeit (1794-1814) ', Rheinische Vierteljahresblätter, 44 (1980), pp. 182-227.
118. Marieluise Schultheis-Friebe, 'Die französische Wirtschaftspolitik im Roër-Departement, 1792-1814' (D. Phil., Bonn, 1969), pp. 69, 92.
119. Kraus, Aachen, pp. 168-9.
120. Schultheis-Friebe, 'Wirtschaftspolitik', pp. 64-9.
121. Rüdiger Schütz, Preuβen und die Rheinlande. Studien zur preuβischen Integrationspolitik im Vormärz (Wiesbaden, 1979). pp. 125-7.
122. 1bII Roër 2.
123. Schultheis-Friebe, 'Wirtschaftspolitik', pp. 46, 50-3, 58.
124. Ibid., pp. 72-7.
125. Recueil (1810), p. 15.
126. Prefectoral circulars (Roër) of 22 Nov. 1802 and 16 Feb. 1810. Ibid. (1802), pp. 71-2,
127. and (1810), p. 29 respectively.
128. The particular resentment locals showed for outsiders who purchased biens nationaux, which was almost always secularized church property, is well reflected in one of the few windows into the lives of ordinary people in the Napoleonic Rhineland, Johann Delhoven's chronicle of the town of Dormagen. H. Cardauns and R. Müller, eds., Die rheinische Dorfchronik des Johann Peter Delhoven aus Dormagen, 1783-1823 (Cologne, 1926), pp. 180, 197.
129. Crétet (minister of the interior) to Jacobi (acting-prefect, Roër), 23 Mar. 1809. HStAD, Roër dept 2746, nos. 7-11.
130. Crétet to Lameth, 28 July 1808. Ibid., 12;
131. 1bII Roër 3, 'Vente de Tourbe'.
132. 1cV Roër, 6 (for the departmental council of 1801)
133. 1cV Roër, 12 (for that of 1802).
134. 78390, dossier 'Situation'.
135. See, for example, the stress on legal equality in David Hansemann's important memorandum of 31 Dec. 1830. Joseph Hansen, ed., Rheinische Britfe und Akten zur Geschichte der politischen Bewegung, 1830-1850 (2 vols., Bonn, 1919-42), 1, pp. 18-19, 26-7, 61.
136. See also the report sent by the Prussian governor of the Rhine province, Bodelschwingh, to the minister of the interior, Rochow, on 30 Mar. 1836, which similarly stresses the commitment of the Rhenish elite to the principle of legal equality. Ibid., pp. 138-41.
137. For the policy area where this preference for equality over liberty was most pronounced, namely, in the debate over the advantages and disadvantages of Stein's Städteordnung of 1808 in comparison with the Napoleonic communal system, see Faber, 'Selbstverwaltung', pp. 135-8, 144-7.
138. See also Elizabeth Fehrenbach, 'Rheinischer Liberalismus und gesellschaftliche Verfassung', in Wolfgang Schieder, ed., Liberalismus in der Gesellschaft des deutschen Vormärz (Göttingen, 1983), pp. 272-94.
139. Forrest, Conscripts, p. viii. Amongst other works dealing with war and society in this period are Geoffrey Best, War and society in revolutionary Europe, 1770-1870 (London, 1982);
140. Isser Woloch, 'Napoleonic conscription: state power and civil society', Past and Present, 111 (1986), pp. 101-29;
141. and idem, New Regime, ch. 13.
142. For the kingdom of Italy, see the recent piece by Alexander Grab, 'Army, state, and society: conscription and desertion in Napoleonic Italy (1802-1814) ', Journal of Modem History, 67 (1995), pp. 25-54.
143. Peter H. Wilson, War, state and society in Württemberg, 1677-1793 (Cambridge, 1995), p. 82.
144. Heinrich Holthausen, Verwaltung und Stände des Herzogtums Geldern preuβischen Anteils im 18. Jahrhundert (Geldern, 1916), pp. 69-72;
145. Cardauns, Dorfchronik, pp. 89-90.
146. Hansen, Quellen, II, pp. 768, 823-37, 843-8, 879-84.
147. Ibid., pp. 882-3.
148. Gustav Vallee, ed., Le compte général de la conscription de A. A. Hargenvilliers (Paris, 1937), pp. 16-23;
149. er Janvier 1810'.
150. Josef Smets, 'De la coutume à la loi: le pays de Gueldres de 1713 à 1848' (Doctorat d'état, Montpellier III, 1994), p-617;
151. idem, 'Von der "Dorfidylle" zur preußischen Nation. Sozialdisziplinierung der linksrheinischen Bevölkerung durch die Franzosen am Beispiel der allgemeinen Wehrpflicht (1802-1814) ', Historische Zeitschrift, 262 (1996), pp. 712-16.
152. The fluctuations in the price of substitutes in the Roër, based on a sample of 100 contracts, follow the same pattern as Alain Maureau's figures for Avignon, quoted in Forrest, Conscripts, p. 59.
153. The Rhenish sample is taken from HStAD, Schloß Kalkum, Notarial Akten, rep. 326 (Notar Houben, Xanten);
154. rep. 2873-5 (Notar Hoven, Cologne);
155. rep. 287-8 (Notar Hopmann, Kleves);
156. and rep. 2685 (Notar Rüttgers, Düren).
157. er Janvier 1810'.
158. A deserter was a soldier who had illegally left his unit, or set out for his unit as a new recruit and deserted en route. A draft dodger was someone who had failed to present himself for conscription. Forrest, Conscripts, pp. 61-2.
159. er Janvier 1810'.
160. Smets, 'Coutume', pp. 646-9.
161. Calixte Hudemann-Simon, 'Réfractaires et déserteurs de la Grande Armée en Sarre (1802-1813) ', Revue historique, pp. 277 (1987), pp. 12-13, 39-41.
162. th Cuirassiers to Berthier (minister of war), 6 June 1804;
163. 73609, dossier 'Roër 1806-1813', nos. [45-6].
164. er Janvier 1910'.
165. Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln (HASK), FV 3042, no. 143.
166. st imperial police district) 15 July 1813), no. [251] (list of deserters from the Roer, 13 July 1813).
167. 1cIII Roër 4, no. 286.
168. For published contemporary sources, see Kopstadt, Kleve, p. 7
169. and Jean Charles François de Ladoucette, Voyage fait en 1813 et 1814 dans de pays entre Meuse et Rhin: suivi de notes avec une carte géographique (Paris, 1818), p. 357.
170. Josef Smets, in a recent article, presents evidence suggesting that about 10 per cent of those eligible for conscription in a sample of former Hohenzollern towns in the lower Rhine joined the Prussian forces. Smets, 'Dorfidylle', pp. 735-6.
171. J. A. Boost, Was waren die Rheinländer als Menschen und Bürger, und was ist aux ihnen geworden? (Mainz, 1819), p. 184.
172. Napoleon to Fouche (minister of police), Dec. 1806. Napoleon I, Correspondance de Napoléon Ier publiée par ordre de l'Empereur Napoléon III (32 vols., Paris, 1858-69), XI, p. 61.
173. Keil, Handbuch.
174. The use of mobile columns was governed by the avis of the countil of state of 12 May 1807, and the imperial decree of 24 June 1808.
175. Cardauns, Dorfchronik, p. 208.
176. See, for example, HASK, FV 3042.
177. Hudemann-Simon, 'Réfractaires', pp. 38-41.
178. th series, 10 (1969), pp. 2-6.
179. Ladoucette to Savary (minister of police), 14 May 1813, and to Réal, 15 July 1813. AN, F'3609, 'Roër 1806-1813', nos. [221, 225];
180. 1cIII Roër 3, nos. 74, 77, 78, 87.
181. 73609, 'Roër 1806-1813', nos. [129, 131].
182. 10136.
183. Napoleon's order of 7 Dec. 1813, and General Gerard (commander of the column) to Clarke, 29 Nov. 1813. Ibid.
184. Substitution involved an exchange immediately after the drawing of lots in the cantonal capitals to see who would be mobilized into the army, and who would remain behind. The contract was therefore restricted to individuals from the same conscription class, and the same locality. Replacement, on the other hand, involved a contract between a conscript and somebody - possibly an outsider-who agreed to take his place in return for a fixed sum. For the importance of this distinction, see Woloch, New Regime, pp. 397-404.
185. Notarial records for the department of the Roer are relatively well preserved in the HStAD, Zweigstelle Schloß Kalkum. For the following survey I consulted the records of eight notaries from Xanten, Cleves, Cologne, Rheinberg, and Düren, so as to reflect the diversity of the department. The references are: HStAD, Schloß Kalkum, Notarial Akten
186. rep. 326 (Notary Houben of Xanten);
187. rep. 287-8 (Notary Hopmann of Cleves);
188. rep. 694 (Notary Wasseind of Cleves);
189. rep. 160 (Notary Efferz of Cleves);
190. rep. 2685 (Notary Rüttgers of Düren);
191. rep. 2753 (Notary Schmitz of Düren);
192. rep. 587 (Notary Scheffer of Rheinberg);
193. and reps. 2873-5 (Notary Hoven of Cologne).
194. 73609, dossier 'Roër 1806-1813', no. [43].
195. Ibid., [151] (extract from the 'Registre des Arrêtés du Département de la Roër', 22 Oct. 1812).
196. st imperial police district, 17 Dec. 1813. Ibid., [243].
197. 1bII Roër 2, (extract from the minutes of the imperial secretariat of state, 23 Sept. 1806). The government circulated printed extracts of the ruling to all communes as a warning. One example survives as HASK, FV 3103, no. 2.
198. 73609, dossier 'Roër 1806-1813', no. [10], and HStAD, Schloß Kalkum, Notarial Akten
199. rep. 326, 3 (Notary Houben of Xanten), no. 485.
200. 73609, dossier 'Roër 1806-1813', no. [10].
201. Réal to Ladoucette, 1 Apr. 1811. Ibid., no. [62].
202. For the mayor of Weeze and adjunct of Lövenich see HStAD, Schloß Kalkum, Notarial Akten, rep. 287 (Notary Hopmann of Cleves), nos. 4, 246.
203. Ibid., rep. 2874 (Notar Hoven of Cologne), no. 7420.
204. er Janvier 1810'.
205. th Cuirassiers to Berthier, 6 June 1804.
206. HStAD, Schloß Kalkum, Notarial Akten, rep. 287 (Notary Hopmann of Cleves), 514, 498.
207. Though it should also be pointed out that Rhinelanders offered no resistance to the invading allied forces, unlike in neighbouring Alsace-Lorraine.
208. Jacques Droz, Le libéralisme Rhénan, 1815-1848 (Paris, 1940), pp. 31-2.