The declaration of independence and international law

William and Mary Quarterly

Volumn 59, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 39-64

  Armitage, David ^a  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 64949160611     PISSN: 00435597     EISSN: 1933-769     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3491637     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. John Phillip Reid, "The Irrelevance of the Declaration," in Hendrik Hartog, ed., Law in the American Revolution and the American Revolution in the Law (New York, 1981), 46-89
2. Carlton F. Larson, "The Declaration of Independence: A 225th Anniversary Re-Interpretation," Washington Law Review, 76 (2001), 701-91. My thanks to Mr. Larson for a copy of his article before publication
3. Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence (New York, 1978), 362
4. Dennis J. Mahoney, "The Declaration of Independence as a Constitutional Document," in Leonard W. Levy and Mahoney, eds., The Framing and Ratification of the Constitution (New York, 1987), 54, 65
5. Scott Douglas Gerber, To Secure These Rights: The Declaration of Independence and Constitutional Interpretation (New York, 1995), 17
6. Charles L. Black, Jr., A New Birth of Freedom: Human Rights, Named and Unnamed(New York, 1997), 6-10
7. Herbert Friedenwald, The Declaration of Independence, An Interpretation and an Analysis (New York, 1904)
8. John H. Hazelton, The Declaration of Independence: Its History (New York, 1906)
9. Carl Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (New York, 1922)
10. Charles D. Desbler, "How The Declaration Was Received in the Old Thirteen," Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 85 (July 1892), 165-87
11. Philip F. Oetweiler, "The Changing Reputation of the Declaration of Independence: The First Fifty Years," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Ser., 19 (1962), 557-74
12. Philip S. Foner, ed., We, the Other People: Alternative Declarations of Independence by Labor Groups, Farmers, Woman's Rights Advocates, Socialists, and Blacks, 1829-1975 (Urbana, Ill., 1976)
13. Merrill D. Peterson, "This Grand Pertinacity": Abraham Lincoln and the Declaration of Independence (Fort Wayne, 1991)
14. Thomas L. Haskell, "The Curious Persistence of Rights Talk in the 'Age of Interpretation,'" Journal of American History, 74 (1987), 984-1012
15. Michael J. Lacey and Knud Haakonssen, eds., A Culture of Rights: The Bill of Rights in Philosophy, Politics, and Law, 1791 and 1991 (Cambridge, 1991)
16. Richard A. Primus, The American Language of Rights (Cambridge, 1999), chap. 5, "Rights after World War II."
17. Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York, 1997), chap. 4
18. Erich Angermann, "Ständische Rechtstraditionen in der Amerikanischen Unabhängigkeitserkliirung," Historische Zeitschrift, 200 (1965). 61-91
19. Becker, Declaration of Independence
20. Morton White, The Philosophy of the American Revolution (New York, 1978)
21. Gerber, "Whatever Happened to the Declaration of Independence? A Commentary on the Republican Revisionism in the Political Thought of the American Revolution," Polity, 26 (1993), 214-19
22. Michael P. Zuckert, The Natural Rights Republic: Studies in the Foundation of the American Political Tradition (Notre Dame, 1996)
23. Wills, Inventing America
24. Ronald Hamowy, "Jefferson and the Scottish Enlightenment: A Critique of Garry Wills's Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence," WMQ, 3d Ser., 36 (1979), 503-23
25. Andrew J. Reck, "The Enlightenment in American Law, I: The Declaration of Independence," Review of Metaphysics, 44 (1991), 549-73
26. Allen Jayne, Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and Theology (Lexington, Ky., 1998)
27. John Alvis, "Milton and the Declaration of Independence," Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy, 25 (1998), 367-405
28. Wilbur Samuel Howell, "The Declaration of Independence and Eighteenth-Century Logic," WMQ, 3d Ser., 18 (1961), 463-84
29. George Anastaplo, "The Declaration of Independence," Saint Louis University Law Journal, 9 (1965), 391-94
30. Robert A. Ferguson, Law and Letters in American Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), 63
31. Jay Fliegelman, Declaring Independence: Jefferson, Natural Language, and the Culture of Performance (Stanford, 1993)
32. Thomas Starr, "American Relations: Fabricating the Image of the Declaration of Independence," AIGA Journal of Graphic Design, 16 (Dec. 1998), 18-23
33. Reid, "Irrelevance of the Declaration."
34. J.G.A. Pocock, "Political Thought in the English-Speaking Atlantic: I, The Imperial Crisis," in Pocock, ed., The Varieties of British Political Thought, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1995), 281
35. Joseph J. Ellis, ed., What Did the Declaration Declare?(Boston, 1999)
36. Pace Donald S. Lutz, "The Declaration of Independence as Part of an American National Compact," Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 19 (1989), 41-58
37. Howard Mumford Jones, "The Declaration of Independence: A Critique," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, n. s., 85 (1975), 55
38. Sydney George Fisher, "The Twenty-Eight Charges Against the King in the Declaration of Independence," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 31 (1907), 257-303
39. Maier, American Scripture, 105-23
40. As also argued by Zuckert, Natural Rights Republic, 16-17
41. and Stephen E. Lucas, "Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a Rhetorical Document," in Thomas W. Benson, ed., American Rhetoric: Context and Criticism (Carbondale, Ill., 1989), 91
42. Charles Burton Marshall, American Foreign Policy as a Dimension of the American Revolution (Washington, D. C., 1974), 8-9, 19
43. Dumbauld, "Independence under International Law," American Journal of International Law, 70 (1976), 425-31
44. Pocock, The Politics of Extent and the Problems of Freedom, Colorado College Studies, 25 (Colorado Springs, 1988), 13-15
45. Pocock, "States, Republics, and Empires: The American Founding in Early Modern Perspective," in Terence Ball and Pocock, eds., Conceptual Change and the Constitution (Lawrence, Kan., 1988), 55-77
46. Pocock, "Political Thought in the English-Speaking Atlantic," 280-82
47. Peter S. Onuf, "A Declaration of Independence for Diplomatic Historians," Diplomatic History, 22 (1998), 71-72, 82-83
48. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols. (London, 1765-1769), 3: 293
49. Lucas, "The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence," Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 1 (1998), 151
50. Carl-August Fleischhauer, "Declaration," in Rudolf Bernhardt, ed., Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vol. 7 (Amsterdam, 1984), 67
51. [Robert Plumer Ward], An Enquiry into the Manner in which the Different Wars in Europe Have Commenced, . . . To which Are Added the Authorities upon the Nature of a Modern Declaration (London, 1805), 3
52. Boyd, Declaration of Independence, ed. Gawalt, 67
53. James H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608-1870 (Chapel Hill, 1978), chap. 7, "The Idea of Volitional Allegiance."
54. "The Declaration of Independence," in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Boyd et al., 1: 432
55. Jerrilyn Greene Marston, King and Congress: The Transfer of Political Legitimacy, 1774-1776 (Princeton, 1987), 206-23
56. James H. Hutson, "The Partition Treaty and the Declaration of American Independence," JAH, 58 (1971-1972), 875-96
57. Piotr S. Wandycz, "The American Revolution and the Partitions of Poland," in Jaroslaw Pelenski, ed., The American and European Revolutions, 1776-1848: Sociopolitical and Ideological Aspects (Iowa City, 1980), 95-110
58. J. H. Powell, ed., "Speech of John Dickinson Opposing the Declaration of Independence, 1 July, 1776," PMHB, 65 (1941), 478
59. Paine, Common Sense (Philadelphia, 1776), 77-78
60. Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, 34 vols. (Washington, D. C., 1904-1937), 5: 425-26
61. Powell, ed., "Speech of John Dickinson Opposing the Declaration of Independence," 471, 474
62. Milton E. Flower, John Dickinson, Conservative Revolutionary (Charlottesville, 1983), 161-66
63. Vattel, Le Droit des Gens (Amsterdam, 1778), in Library Company of Philadelphia (call number Rare E Vatt 303. Q), and Houghton Library, Harvard University (call number AC7. F8545. Zz775V). Congress's copy has not been located
64. Adams, Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams, 10 vols. (Boston, 1850-1856), 2: 516
65. Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, 1961), 50
66. Robert J. Taylor et al., eds., Papers of John Adams, 10 vols. to date (Cambridge, Mass., 1977- ), 4: 262-63. My thanks to Celeste Walker for this information
67. Mario Toscano, The History of Treaties and International Politics, 2 vols. (Baltimore, 1966), 1: 47-66
68. Vattel, The Law of Nations, or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns (1758), Eng. trans. (London, 1760), xi
69. Elizabeth S. Kite, "How the Declaration of Independence Reached Europe," Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine, 62 (July 1928), 405-13
70. Howard H. Peckham, "Independence: The View from Britain," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, n. s. 85 (1975), 387-403
71. R. R. Palmer, "The Declaration of Independence in France," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 154 (1976), 1569-79
72. Horst Dippel, Germany and the American Revolution, 1770-1800, trans. Bernhard A. Uhlendorf (Chapel Hill, 1977), 29, 36, 100-05, 276, 347
73. Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt, The Dutch Republic and American Independence, trans. Herbert R. Rowen (Chapel Hill, 1982)
74. Franco Venturi, The End of the Old Regime in Europe, 1776-1789, vol. 1: The Great States of the West, trans. R. Burr Litchfield (Princeton, 1991), 13, 17 (Italy)
75. Luis Ángel Garcfa Melero, La Independencia de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica a través de la Prensa Espanola . . . Los Precedentes (1763-1776) (Madrid, 1977), 297-98
76. More generally, see Willi Paul Adams and David Thelen, eds., "Roundtable: Interpreting the Declaration of Independence by Translation," JAH, 85 (1999), 1280-1458
77. ADM 1/487/34; CO 5/40/252; CO 5/177/29; CO 5/1353/401, PRO, Kew. Only one of these 4 copies is recorded in Michael J. Walsh, "Contemporary Broadside Editions of the Declaration of Independence," Harvard Library Bulletin, 3 (1949), 31-43
78. Edward H. Tatum, Jr., ed., The American Journal of Ambrose Serie, Secretary to Lord Howe, 1776-1778 (San Marino, Calif., 1940), 31
79. Morning Chronicle (London), Aug. 17, 1776
80. British Chronicle (London), Aug. 14-16, 1776
81. St. James's Chronicle (London), Aug. 15-17, 1776
82. General Evening Post (London), Aug. 15-17, 1776
83. Annual Register (London) for 1776, 261-64
84. D. D., "London Newspapers of 1776 and the Declaration of Independence," The Nation, 66 (Feb. 17, 1898), 127-28
85. Solomon Lutnick, The American Revolution and the British Press, 1775-1783 (Columbia, Mo., 1967), 75-76
86. Caledonian Mercury (Edinburgh), Aug. 20, 1776
87. Scots Magazine (Edinburgh), 38 (1776), 433-36
88. Donald W. Livingston, "Hume, English Barbarism, and American Independence," in Richard B. Sher and Jeffrey R. Smitten, eds., Scotland and America in the Age of Enlightenment (Princeton, 1990), 133
89. Freeman's Journal (Dublin), Aug. 24, 1776
90. Gazette de Leyde (Leiden), Aug. 30, 1776
91. Jeremy D. Popkin, News and Politics in the Age of Revolution: Jean Luzac's Gazette de Leyde (Ithaca, 1989), 151
92. Berlingske Tidende (Copenhagen), Sept. 2, 1776, reproduced in Albert P. Blaustein, Jay Sigler, and Benjamin R. Breede, eds., Independence Documents of the World, 2 vols. (New York, 1977), 1: 187
93. Gazzetta Universale o Sieno Notizie Istoriche, Politiche, di Scienze, Arti, Agricoltura (Florence) and Notizie del Mondo (Florence), Sept. 14, 1776 (I am very grateful to Guido Abbattista for locating the latter journal and confirming its contents)
94. Venturi, End of the Old Regime in Europe, trans. Litchfield, 1: 50
95. Ephemeriden der Menschheit (Basel), Oct. 1776, 96-106
96. Dippel, Germany and the American Revolution, 1770-1800, trans. Uhlendorf, 29
97. Gazeta Warszawska (Warsaw), Sept. 11, 1776
98. Irene M. Sokol, "The American Revolution and Poland: A Bibliographical Essay," Polish Review, 12: 3 (1967), 8
99. Neil Longley York, Neither Kingdom nor Nation: The Irish Quest for Constitutional Rights, 1698-1800 (Washington, D. C., 1994), 103
100. "An Answer to the Declaration of Independence," Scots Magazine, 38 (1776), 652-55; 39 (1777), 65-74, 121-28, 177-86, 233-42, 289-93 (reprinting extracts from [John Lind and Jeremy Bentham], An Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress [London, 1776])
101. D. B. Swinfen, "The American Revolution in the Scottish Press," in Owen Dudley Edwards and George Shepperson, eds., Scotland, Europe, and the American Revolution (Edinburgh, 1976), 71
102. Article 2, Treaty of Alliance, Feb. 6, 1778, in Hunter Miller, ed., Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, vol. 2: 1776-1818 (Washington, D. C., 1931), 36-37
103. William C. Stinchcombe, The American Revolution and the French Alliance (Syracuse, N. Y., 1969), 8-13
104. [Lind and Bentham], Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress, 5
105. [Lind and Bentham], Remarks on the Principal Acts of the Thirteenth Parliament (London, 1775)
106. [Lind], Three Letters to Dr Price, Containing Remarks on his Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, the Principles of Government, and the Justice and Policy of the War with America (London, 1776)
107. Margaret E. Avery, "Toryism in the Age of the American Revolution: John Lind and John Shebbeare," Historical Studies (Melbourne), 18 (1978), 24-36
108. [Lind and Dentham], Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress, 6-7, 95. 107
109. Bernard Bailyn, The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), 357-59
110. [Bentham], "Short Review of the Declaration," in [Lind and Bentham], Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress, 120
111. Douglas G. Long, Bentham on Liberty: Jeremy Bentham's Idea of Liberty in Relation to his Utilitarianism (Toronto, 1977), 51-54
112. H.L.A. Hart, "The United States of America," in Hart, Essays on Bentham: Studies in Jurisprudence and Political Theory (Oxford, 1982), 63-65
113. Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, "American Constitutionalism and the Emergence of a Liberal World Order," in George Athan Billias, ed., American Constitutionalism Abroad: Selected Essays in Comparative Constitutional History (New York, 1990), 77
114. Bentham, "Hey" (1776), Bentham Papers, University College London, 49:57-68, replying to Richard Hey, Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, and the Principles of Government (London, 1776)
115. Long, Bentham on Liberty, 57-59
116. G. I. Molivas, "A Right, Utility, and the Definition of Liberty as a Negative Idea: Richard Hey and the Benthamite Conception of Liberty," History of European Ideas, 25 (1999), 75-92
117. Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1780), ed. J. H. Burns and Hart (Oxford, 1996), 311 note
118. John Bowring, ed., The Works of Jeremy Bentham, 11 vols. (Edinburgh, 1843), 10: 63
119. Bentham, "Anarchical Fallacies . .." (1792), in Jeremy Waldron, ed., "Nonsense Upon Stilts": Bentham, Burke, and Marx on the Rights of Man (London, 1987), 53
120. Onuf and Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World: The Law of Nations in an Age of Revolutions, 1776-1814 (Madison, 1993), 2
121. On the history of this tradition see especially Knud Haakonssen, Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1996)
122. Haakonssen, ed., Grotius, Pufendorf, and Modern Natural Law (Aldershot, 1999)
123. and T. J. Hochstrasser, Natural Law Theories in the Early Enlightenment (Cambridge, 2000)
124. Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, ed. Burns and Hart, 6, 296
125. M. W. Janis, "Jeremy Bentham and the Fashioning of 'International Law,'" Amer. J. International Law, 78 (1984), 408-10
126. Jefferson, "Reasons in Support of the New Proposed Articles in the Treaties of Commerce" (Mar. 10, 1784), in Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States from the Signing of the Definitive Treaty of Peace, 10th September 1783, to the Adoption of the Constitution, March 4, 1789, 3 vols. (Washington, D. C., 1837), 1: 532-34
127. quoted in Gregg L. Lint, "The American Revolution and the Law of Nations, 1776-1789," Diplomatic History, 1 (1977), 34
128. J. J. Moser, Beyträge zu dem neuesten Europ'dischen Völkerrecht in Friedenszeiten, 5 vols. (Tubingen, 1778-1780)
129. Pierre Joseph Neyron, Principes du droit des gens Européen conventionnel et coutumier (Brunswick, 1783)
130. D.H.L. von Ompteda, Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natürlichen als positiven Völkerrechts, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1785)
131. G. F. von Martens, Précis du Droit des Gens moderne de l'Europe, 2 vols. (Gottingen, 1789; Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1795)
132. Ward, Enquiry into the Foundations and History of the Law of Nations in Europe, 2 vols. (London, 1795)
133. Jean Louis Klüber, Droit des Gens Moderne de l'Europe, 2 vols. (Stuttgart, 1819)
134. Frederick Eden, An Historical Sketch of the International Policy of Modern Europe, as Connected with the Principles of the Law of Nature and of Nations (London, 1823)
135. Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law, with a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadelphia, 1836), 1-29
136. and Wheaton, Histoire des progrès du droit des gens en Europe (Leipzig, 1841; Eng. trans., New York, 1845)
137. Georg Friedrich von Martens, Summary of the Law of Nations, Founded on the Treaties and Customs of the Modern Nations of Europe (1789), trans. William Cobbett (Philadelphia, 1795), 3-4
138. Jefferson, "Opinion on the Treaties with France," Apr. 28, 1793, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Boyd et al., 25: 609
139. See, generally, Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford, 1999)
140. Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751), ed. Tom L. Beauchamp (Oxford, 1998), 100
141. Ward, Enquiry into the Foundations and History of the Law of Nations in Europe, 1: 63
142. Kant, "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch" (1795), in Kant: Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss, 2d ed. (Cambridge, 1991), 103
143. [Bentham], "Short Review of the Declaration," 131
144. B. Honig, "Declarations of Independence: Arendt and Derrida on the Problem of Founding a Republic," American Political Science Review, 85 (1991), 97-113
145. On the contemporary context of these issues see Julius Goebel, Jr., The Recognition Policy of the United States (New York, 1915, 1968), chap. 3, "Intervention and Recognition in the American Revolution."
146. C. H. Alexandrowicz, "The Theory of Recognition In Fieri," British Year Book of International Law, 34 (1958), 176-98
147. James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford, 1979), 5-12
148. Wilhelm G. Grewe, The Epochs of International Law, rev. and trans. Michael Byers (Berlin, 2000), 343-48
149. Steck, "Versuch von Erkennung der Unabhängigkeit einer Nation, und eines Staats," in von Steck, Versuche über verschiedene Materien politischer und rechtlicher Kenntnisse (Berlin, 1783), 49-56
150. Jochen A. Frowein, "Transfer or Recognition of Sovereignty-Some Early Problems in Connection with Dependent Territories,"Amer. J. International Law, 65 (1971), 568-71. My thanks to R. Russell Maylone of the Northwestern University Library for providing me with a copy of Steck's Versuche
151. Martens, Summary of the Law of Nations, trans. Cobbett, 80 and note
152. Jenkinson, A Collection of All the Treaties of Peace, Alliance, and Commerce between Great-Britain and Other Powers... , 3 vols. (London, 1785), 1: iii, 3: 237-41
153. Charles de Martens, Recueil des principaux traités d'alliance, de paix, de trève, de neutralité, de commerce, 5 vols. (Göttingen, 1791-1807), 1: 580
154. Charles de Martens, Recueil de traités de paix. . . et de plusieurs autres actes servant à la connaissance des relations étrangères des puissances et états de l'Europe, 8 vols. (Göttingen, 1817-35), 2: 481-85 (Declaration), 486-502 (Articles of Confederation)
155. Len Travers, Celebrating the Fourth: Independence Day and the Rites of Nationalism in the Early Republic (Amherst, Mass., 1997), 21-23, 161, 206
156. Maier, American Scripture, 160,191 (quotation)
157. Kent, Commentaries on American Law, 4 vols. (New York, 1828), 1: 2
158. Mark Weston Janis, "American Versions of the International Law of Christendom: Kent, Wheaton and the Grotian Tradition," Netherlands International Law Review, 39 (1992), 38-39
159. On the relationship of American municipal law to international law in this period see Stewart Jay, "The Status of the Law of Nations in Early American Law," Vanderbilt Law Review, 42 (1989), 819-49
160. and the debate between John C. Yoo, "Globalism and the Constitution: Treaties, Non-Self-Execution, and the Original Understanding," Columbia Law Review, 99 (1999), 1955-2094
161. Scott, ed., The Declaration of Independence, The Articles of Confederation, The Constitution of the United States (New York, 1917), xvii-xix
162. Scott, The United States of America: A Study in International Organization (New York, 1910), x, 467-69
163. On the former, see for example J.C.D. Clark, The Language of Liberty, 1660-1832: Political Discourse and Social Dynamics in the Anglo-American World (Cambridge, 1994)
164. on the latter, Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (New York, 1963)
165. Thomas C. Barrow, "The American Revolution as a War for Colonial Independence," WMQ, 3d Ser., 25 (1968), 452-64
166. Richard B. Morris, The Emerging Nations and the American Revolution (New York, 1970)
167. Edwin G. Burrows and Michael Wallace, "The American Revolution: The Ideology and Psychology of National Liberation," Perspectives in American History, 6 (1972), 167, 279-80
168. and D. George Boyce, Decolonisation and the British Empire, 1775-1997 (Basingstoke, 1999), 21-28
169. Blaustein, Sigler, and Breede, eds., Independence Documents of the World, 2: 733
170. "The Dutch Declaration of Independence" (July 26, 1581), Old South Leaflets, No. 72 (Boston, 1896)
171. J.P.A. Coopmans, "Het Plakkaat van Verlatinge (1581) en de Declaration of Independence (1776)," Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, 98 (1983), 540-67
172. Lucas, "The 'Plakkaat van Verlatinge': A Neglected Model for the American Declaration of Independence," in Rosemarijn Hoefte, Johanna C. Kardux, and Hans Bak, eds., Connecting Cultures: The Netherlands in Five Centuries of Transatlantic Exchange (Amsterdam, 1994), 187-207
173. Lucas, "Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Independence," 159-69
174. Jane H. Ohlmeyer, "Ireland Independent: Confederate Foreign Policy and International Relations during the Mid-Seventeenth Century," in Ohlmeyer, ed., Ireland from Independence to Occupation, 1641-1660 (Cambridge, 1995), 89-112
175. Thadd E. Hall, France and the Eighteenth-Century Corsican Question (New York, 1971)
176. Alan W. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772-1783 (Cambridge, 1970)
177. For example, Johann Jacob Moser, Versuch des neuesten Ettropäischen Völkerrechts, 10 vols. (Frankfurt am Main, 1777-1780), 6: 126-47 (Corsica, Crimea, the United States)
178. Eden, Historical Sketch of the International Policy of Modern Europe, 81-82
179. John C. Rainbolt, "Americans' Initial View of Their Revolution's Significance for Other Peoples, 1776-1788," The Historian, 35 (1973), 430-33
180. Friedrich von Gentz, The Origin and Principles of the American Revolution, Compared with the Origin and Principles of the French Revolution, trans. John Quincy Adams (Philadelphia, 1800)
181. David Armstrong, Revolution and World Order: The Revolutionary State in International Society (Oxford, 1993), 42-112, 204-25, illuminatingly compares the American and French Revolutions in this regard